In JavaScript, I can do import "/my-folder" and it will import /my-folder/index.js".
Is there some equivalent filename in C++? (so that #include "my-folder" will include my-folder/filename.fileext)?
No, there is not equivalent to index.js in standard C++. It would however be perfectly legal for a specific compiler to implement something like that, though I'm not aware of any compiler that does. Quoting from 19.2 [cpp.include] (N4659):
(1) A #include directive shall identify a header or source file that can be processed by the implementation.
(3) A preprocessing directive of the form
# include " q-char-sequence " new-line
causes the replacement of that directive by the entire contents of the source file identified by the specified sequence between the " delimiters. The named source file is searched for in an implementation-defined manner.
Emphasis mine.
I'm not sure what role index.js typically plays in JavaScript libraries, but if you're trying to implement a portable catch-all header for your library (so that the end users only need to include a single header instead of many), you'll just have to write your own header to serve that purpose. Headers named along the lines of my_folder/my_folder.h or my_folder/prelude.h would be common candidates.
Related
T.C. left an interesting comment to my answer on this question:
Why aren't include guards in c++ the default?
T.C. states:
There's "header" and there's "source file". "header"s don't need to be
actual files.
What does this mean?
Perusing the standard, I see plenty of references to both "header files" and "headers". However, regarding #include, I noticed that the standard seems to make reference to "headers" and "source files". (C++11, § 16.2)
A preprocessing directive of the form
# include < h-char-sequence> new-line
searches a sequence of implementation-defined places for a header identified uniquely
by the specified sequence between the < and > delimiters, and causes the replacement
of that directive by the entire contents of the header. How the places are specified
or the header identified is implementation-defined.
and
A preprocessing directive of the form
# include " q-char-sequence" new-line
causes the replacement of that directive by the entire contents of the source *file*
identified by the specified sequence between the " delimiters. The named source *file*
is searched for in an implementation-defined manner.
I don't know if this is significant. It could be that "headers" in a C++ context unambiguously means "header files" but the word "sources" would be ambiguous so "headers" is a shorthand but "sources" is not. Or it could be that a C++ compiler is allowed leeway for bracket includes and only needs to act as if textual replacement takes place.
So when are header (files) not files?
The footnote mentioned by T.C. in the comments below is quite direct:
174) A header is not necessarily a source file, nor are the sequences
delimited by < and > in header names necessarily valid source file
names (16.2).
For the standard header "files" the C++ standard doesn't really make a mandate that the compiler uses a file or that the file, if it uses one, actually looks like a C++ file. Instead, the standard header files are specified to make a certain set of declarations and definitions available to the C++ program.
An alternative implementation to a file could be a readily packaged set of declarations represented in the compiler as data structure which is made available when using the corresponding #include-directive. I'm not aware of any compiler which does exactly that but clang started to implement a module system which makes the headers available from some already processed format.
They do not have to be files, since the C and C++ preprocessor are nearly identical it is reasonable to look into the C99 rationale for some clarity on this. If we look at the Rationale for International Standard—Programming Languages—C it says in section 7.1.2 Standard headers says (emphasis mine):
In many implementations the names of headers are the names of files in
special directories. This implementation technique is not required,
however: the Standard makes no assumptions about the form that a file
name may take on any system. Headers may thus have a special status if
an implementation so chooses. Standard headers may even be built into
a translator, provided that their contents do not become “known” until
after they are explicitly included. One purpose of permitting these
header “files” to be “built in” to the translator is to allow an
implementation of the C language as an interpreter in a free-standing
environment where the only “file” support may be a network interface.
It really depends on the definition of files.
If you consider any database which maps filenames to contents to be a filesystem, then yes, headers are files. If you only consider files to be that which is recognized by the OS kernel open system call, then no, headers don't have to be files.
They could be stored in a relational database. Or a compressed archive. Or downloaded over the network. Or stored in alternate streams or embedded resources of the compiler executable itself.
In the end, though, textual replacement is done, and the text comes from some sort of indexed-by-name database.
Dietmar mentioned modules and loading already processed content... but this is generally NOT allowable behavior for #include according to the C++ standard (modules will have to use a different syntax, or perhaps #include with a completely new quotation scheme other than <> or ""). The only processing that could be done in advance is tokenization. But contents of headers and included source files are subject to stateful preprocessing.
Some compilers implement "precompiled headers" which have done more processing than mere tokenization, but eventually you find some behavior that violates the Standard. For example, in Visual C++:
The compiler ... skips to just beyond the #include directive associated with the .h file, uses the code contained in the .pch file, and then compiles all code after filename.
Ignoring the actual source code prior to #include definitely does not conform to the Standard. (That doesn't prevent it from being useful, but you need to be aware that edits may not produce the expected behavior changes)
T.C. left an interesting comment to my answer on this question:
Why aren't include guards in c++ the default?
T.C. states:
There's "header" and there's "source file". "header"s don't need to be
actual files.
What does this mean?
Perusing the standard, I see plenty of references to both "header files" and "headers". However, regarding #include, I noticed that the standard seems to make reference to "headers" and "source files". (C++11, § 16.2)
A preprocessing directive of the form
# include < h-char-sequence> new-line
searches a sequence of implementation-defined places for a header identified uniquely
by the specified sequence between the < and > delimiters, and causes the replacement
of that directive by the entire contents of the header. How the places are specified
or the header identified is implementation-defined.
and
A preprocessing directive of the form
# include " q-char-sequence" new-line
causes the replacement of that directive by the entire contents of the source *file*
identified by the specified sequence between the " delimiters. The named source *file*
is searched for in an implementation-defined manner.
I don't know if this is significant. It could be that "headers" in a C++ context unambiguously means "header files" but the word "sources" would be ambiguous so "headers" is a shorthand but "sources" is not. Or it could be that a C++ compiler is allowed leeway for bracket includes and only needs to act as if textual replacement takes place.
So when are header (files) not files?
The footnote mentioned by T.C. in the comments below is quite direct:
174) A header is not necessarily a source file, nor are the sequences
delimited by < and > in header names necessarily valid source file
names (16.2).
For the standard header "files" the C++ standard doesn't really make a mandate that the compiler uses a file or that the file, if it uses one, actually looks like a C++ file. Instead, the standard header files are specified to make a certain set of declarations and definitions available to the C++ program.
An alternative implementation to a file could be a readily packaged set of declarations represented in the compiler as data structure which is made available when using the corresponding #include-directive. I'm not aware of any compiler which does exactly that but clang started to implement a module system which makes the headers available from some already processed format.
They do not have to be files, since the C and C++ preprocessor are nearly identical it is reasonable to look into the C99 rationale for some clarity on this. If we look at the Rationale for International Standard—Programming Languages—C it says in section 7.1.2 Standard headers says (emphasis mine):
In many implementations the names of headers are the names of files in
special directories. This implementation technique is not required,
however: the Standard makes no assumptions about the form that a file
name may take on any system. Headers may thus have a special status if
an implementation so chooses. Standard headers may even be built into
a translator, provided that their contents do not become “known” until
after they are explicitly included. One purpose of permitting these
header “files” to be “built in” to the translator is to allow an
implementation of the C language as an interpreter in a free-standing
environment where the only “file” support may be a network interface.
It really depends on the definition of files.
If you consider any database which maps filenames to contents to be a filesystem, then yes, headers are files. If you only consider files to be that which is recognized by the OS kernel open system call, then no, headers don't have to be files.
They could be stored in a relational database. Or a compressed archive. Or downloaded over the network. Or stored in alternate streams or embedded resources of the compiler executable itself.
In the end, though, textual replacement is done, and the text comes from some sort of indexed-by-name database.
Dietmar mentioned modules and loading already processed content... but this is generally NOT allowable behavior for #include according to the C++ standard (modules will have to use a different syntax, or perhaps #include with a completely new quotation scheme other than <> or ""). The only processing that could be done in advance is tokenization. But contents of headers and included source files are subject to stateful preprocessing.
Some compilers implement "precompiled headers" which have done more processing than mere tokenization, but eventually you find some behavior that violates the Standard. For example, in Visual C++:
The compiler ... skips to just beyond the #include directive associated with the .h file, uses the code contained in the .pch file, and then compiles all code after filename.
Ignoring the actual source code prior to #include definitely does not conform to the Standard. (That doesn't prevent it from being useful, but you need to be aware that edits may not produce the expected behavior changes)
Accelerated C++: Practical Programming by Example book says the following..
... system header files need not be implemented as files. Even though the #include
directive is used to access both our own header files and system headers, there
is no requirement that they be implemented in the same way
What exactly does this mean? If not as a file how else can a system header file be implemented?
Imagine you write your own compiler and C++ standard library. You could make it so that #include <vector> does not open any file, but instead simply loads some state into the compiler which makes it understand std::vector. You could then implement your vector class in some language other than C++, so long as your compiler understands enough to make it work "as if" you had written an actual C++ source file called vector.
The compiler could have hardcoded that when it sees:
#include <iostream>
then it makes available all definitions of things that are specified as being declared by this directive, etc.
Or it could store the definitions in a database, or some other encoded file, or the cloud, or whatever. The point is that the standard does not restrict the compiler in any way, so long as the end goal is achieved that the specified things get declared.
The way in which headers are included into your "source file stream" is left mostly up to the implementation.
C++11 (but this has been the case for a long time, both in C++ and C) 16.2 Source file inclusion states:
A #include directive shall identify a header or source file that can be processed by the implementation.
A preprocessing directive of the form # include < h-char-sequence> new-line searches a sequence of implementation-defined places for a header identified uniquely by the specified sequence between the < and > delimiters, and causes the replacement of that directive by the entire contents of the header. How the places are specified or the header identified is implementation-defined.
(and then further description of the " and naked variants of #include).
So the header may be in a file.
It may also be injected by the compiler from hard-coded values.
Or read from a server located on one of the planets orbiting Betelgeuse (though, without FTL transmissions, such a compiler wouldn't last long in the marketplace).
The possibilities are many and varied, most of them bordering on lunacy but none of them actually forbidden by the standard itself.
At this tutorial it mentions the following about #include "filename":
#include "filename" tells the compiler to look for the file in
directory containing the source file
doing the #include. If that fails,
it will act identically to the angled
brackets case.
What is meant by the bolded font sentence?
Thanks.
The bold bit simply means that, if the file specified inside quotes cannot be located using the " method, it will revert to the <> method.
I should mention that the bit about where it looks for the include files is actually incorrect. In both cases (quotes and angle brackets), the search locations are implementation defined.
From the lex.header section:
The sequences in both forms of header-names are mapped in an implementation-defined manner to headers or to external source file names as specified in 16.2.
The 16.2 section follows:
A #include directive shall identify a header or source file that can be processed by the implementation.
A preprocessing directive of the form
# include < h-char-sequence> new-line
searches a sequence of implementation-defined places for a header identified uniquely by the specified sequence between the < and > delimiters, and causes the replacement of that directive by the entire contents of the header. How the places are specified or the header identified is implementation-defined.
A preprocessing directive of the form
# include " q-char-sequence" new-line
causes the replacement of that directive by the entire contents of the source file identified by the specified sequence between the " delimiters. The named source file is searched for in an implementation-defined manner. If this search is not supported, or if the search fails, the directive is reprocessed as if it read
# include < h-char-sequence> new-line
with the identical contained sequence (including > characters, if any) from the original directive.
So the statement "... tells the compiler to look for the file in directory containing the source file doing the #include ..." is wrong. It's totally up to the implementation how it finds the files, in both cases.
Having said that, the rest is correct. If the method used by the " type does not locate the header, the method used by the <> type is then used. That's really all the bold bit means.
You just have to read the documentation for your particular implementation to see what those methods are.
While the exact details are implementation-dependent, there are a few common practices. In most common compilers, using the quotes #include "filename.h" searches the current directory by default. Using angle brackets #include <filename.h> searches system-defined library directories. What it is saying is that if the current directory doesn't have the file you need, it will search the system directories instead.
Note that some compilers may be different, and your compiler itself may have options to change these directories. There is also the possibility that system headers don't actually exist, but that #include <foo.h> is directly recognized by the compiler to enable certain built-in definitions.
For the purposes of this question, I am interested only in Standard-Compliant C++, not C or C++0x, and not any implementation-specific details.
Questions arise from time to time regarding the difference between #include "" and #include <>. The argument typically boils down to two differences:
Specific implementations often search different paths for the two forms. This is platform-specific, and not in the scope of this question.
The Standard says #include <> is for "headers" whereas #include "" is for a "source file." Here is the relevant reference:
ISO/IEC 14882:2003(E)
16.2 Source file inclusion [cpp.include]
1 A #include directive shall identify a header or source file that can be processed by the implementation.
2 A preprocessing directive of the form
# include < h-char-sequence > new-line
searches a sequence of implementation-defined places for a header identified uniquely by the specified sequence between the < and > delimiters, and causes the replacement of that directive by the entire contents of the header. How the places are specified or the header identified is implementation-defined.
3 A preprocessing directive of the form
# include "q-char-sequence" new-line
causes the replacement of that directive by the entire contents of the source file identified by the specified sequence between the " delimiters. The named source file is searched for in an implementation-defined manner. If this search is not supported, or if the search fails, the directive is reprocessed as if it read
# include < h-char-sequence > new-line
with the identical contained sequence (including > characters, if any) from the original directive.
(Emphasis in quote above is mine.) The implication of this difference seems to be that the Standard intends to differentiate between a 'header' and a 'source file', but nowhere does the document define either of these terms or the difference between them.
There are few other places where headers or source files are even mentioned. A few:
158) A header is not necessarily a source file, nor are the sequences delimited by in header names necessarily valid source file names (16.2).
Seems to imply a header may not reside in the filesystem, but it doesn't say that source files do, either.
2 Lexical conventions [lex]
1 The text of the program is kept in units called source files in this International Standard. A source file together with all the headers (17.4.1.2) and source files included (16.2) via the preprocessing directive #include, less any source lines skipped by any of the conditional inclusion (16.1) preprocessing directives, is called a translation unit. [Note: a C + + program need not all be translated at the same time. ]
This is the closest I could find to a definition, and it seems to imply that headers are not the "text of the program." But if you #include a header, doesn't it become part of the text of the program? This is a bit misleading.
So what is a header? What is a source file?
My reading is that the standard headers, included by use of <> angle brackets, need not be actual files on the filesystem; e.g. an implementation would be free to enable a set of "built-in" operations providing the functionality of iostream when it sees #include <iostream>.
On the other hand, "source files" included with #include "xxx.h" are intended to be literal files residing on the filesystem, searched in some implementation-dependent manner.
Edit: to answer your specific question, I believe that "headers" are limited only to those #includeable facilities specified in the standard: iostream, vector and friends---or by the implementation as extensions to the standard. "Source files" would be any non-standard facilities (as .h files, etc.) the programmer may write or use.
Isn't this saying that a header may be implemented as a source file, but there again may not be? as for "what is a source file", it seems very sensible for the standard not to spell this out, given the many ways that "files" are implemented.
The standard headers (string, iostream) don't necessarily have to be files with those names, or even files at all. As long as when you say
#include <iostream>
a certain list of declarations come into scope, the Standard is satisfied. Exactly how that comes about is an implementation detail. (when the Standard was being written, DOS could only handle 8.3 filenames, but some of the standard header names were longer than that)
As your quotes say: a header is something included using <>, and a source file is the file being compiled, or something included using "". Exactly where the contents of these come from, and what non-standard headers are available, is up to the implementation. All the Standard specifies is what is defined if you include the standard headers.
By convention, headers are generally system-wide things, and source files are generally local to a project (for some definition of project), but the standard wisely doesn't get bogged down in anything to do with project organisation; it just gives very general definitions that are compatible with such conventions, leaving the details to the implementation and/or the user.
Nearly all of the standard deals with the program after it's been preprocessed, at which time there are no such things as source files or headers, just the translations units that your last quote defines.
Hmmm...
My casual understanding has been that the distinction between <> includes and "" includes was inherited from c and (though not defined by the standards) the de facto meaning was that <> searched paths for system and compiler provided headers and "" also searched local and user specified paths.
The definition above seem to agree in some sense with that usage, but restricts the use of "header" to things provided by the compiler or system exclusive of code provided by the user, even if they have the traditional "interface goes in the header" form.
Anyway, very interesting.