Say I have a function that I want to call multiple times. At the start of this function I have declared an integer for a value of zero, and at the end of it I increased its value by one. Now I want to save the new value so when I call the function again the value of that variable becomes 2. Is there a way to do that besides getting the variable from another function or declare it at the top of line codes out of the functions?
TLDR
Yes, using the static keyword.
It changes the lifetime of the object declared with it, that becomes available for the whole duration of the program.
That said, you should be careful with using static local variables, because you're adding a state to the function execution.
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
void printX()
{
static int x;
cout << "x: " << x << endl;
++x;
}
int main()
{
for (int i = 0; i < 10; ++i)
printX();
}
https://www.jdoodle.com/iembed/v0/909
There's more to the static keyword and you should look into it.
I'd suggest you read at least a couple of articles about it:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Static_(keyword)#Common_C
https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/static-variables-in-c/
you can use a static variable declared inside the function, since it is static the initialization to zero will happen only once and the rest of the time you call the function it will retain its value...
here is an example:
#include <iostream>
void foo(int x)
{
static int counter{0};
std::cout<< "this is x: " << x << std::endl;
counter++;
std::cout<< "this is counter: " << counter << std::endl;
}
int main() {
foo(1);
foo(10);
std::cout<< "something else in the app is executed... " << std::endl;
foo(101);
return 0;
}
and here the output:
this is x: 1
this is counter: 1
this is x: 10
this is counter: 2
something else in the app is executed...
this is x: 101
this is counter: 3
Related
Why do I have a memory fault in the below code? How do I fix it?
I want to read the progress of the outside function.
But I only get the output get_report_progress:100
#include <iostream>
int* int_get_progress = 0;
void get_progress(int* int_get_progress)
{
int n = 100;
int *report_progress = &n;
int_get_progress = report_progress;
std::cout << "get_report_progress:" << *int_get_progress <<std::endl;
}
int main()
{
get_progress(int_get_progress);
std::cout << "main get process:" << *int_get_progress << std::endl;
return 0;
}
Your global int_get_progress variable is a pointer that is initialized to null. You are passing it by value to the function, so a copy of it is made. As such, any new value the function assigns to that pointer is to the copy, not to the original. Thus, the global int_get_progress variable is left unchanged, and main() ends up deferencing a null pointer, which is undefined behavior and in this case is causing a memory fault.
Even if you fix the code to let the function update the caller's pointer, your code would still fail to work properly, because you are setting the pointer to point at a local variable that goes out of scope when the function exits, thus you would leave the pointer dangling, pointing at invalid memory, which is also undefined behavior when that pointer is then dereferenced.
Your global variable (which doesn't need to be global) should not be a pointer at all, but it can be passed around by pointer, eg:
#include <iostream>
void get_progress(int* p_progress)
{
int n = 100;
*p_progress = n;
std::cout << "get_report_progress:" << *p_progress << std::endl;
}
int main()
{
int progress = 0;
get_progress(&progress);
std::cout << "main get process:" << progress << std::endl;
return 0;
}
Alternatively, pass it by reference instead, eg:
#include <iostream>
void get_progress(int& ref_progress)
{
int n = 100;
ref_progress = n;
std::cout << "get_report_progress:" << ref_progress << std::endl;
}
int main()
{
int progress = 0;
get_progress(progress);
std::cout << "main get process:" << progress << std::endl;
return 0;
}
Alternatively, don't pass it around by parameter at all, but return it instead, eg:
#include <iostream>
int get_progress()
{
int n = 100;
std::cout << "get_report_progress:" << n << std::endl;
return n;
}
int main()
{
int progress = get_progress();
std::cout << "main get process:" << progress << std::endl;
return 0;
}
I'm trying to get the hang of pointers and addresses in C++ and am having trouble with functions with changing parameters.
The code below is writing Loop run #1. in an infinite loop, instead of incrementing the value foo.
My question is: What is the issue with this code here?
#include <iostream>
void Statement(int *foo) {
std::cout << "Loop run #" << *foo << ". ";
foo++;
}
int main() {
int foo = 1;
for (;;) {
Statement(&foo);
}
}
You're incrementing a copy of the pointer itself, not what it points to. You probably meant:
(*foo)++;
This still won't fix the infinite loop though because you have nothing to stop it with.
Your issue is that you're incrementing the pointer, not the pointed-to data.
replace
foo++
with
(*foo)++
to increment the pointed-to value.
If I have understood correctly what you are trying to do then the function should be declared the following way as it is shown in the demonstrative program
#include <iostream>
void Statement(int *foo) {
std::cout << "Loop run #" << *foo << ". ";
++*foo;
}
int main() {
int foo = 1;
for (; ; ) {
Statement(&foo);
}
}
That is in an infinite loop you are trying to output incremented value of foo.
In this case you have increment the value itself pointed to by the pointer like
++*foo
If you want to limit loop iterations then you can use for example an object of the type unsigned char and define the loop the following way
#include <iostream>
void Statement( unsigned char *foo) {
std::cout << "Loop run #" << int( *foo ) << ". ";
++*foo;
}
int main() {
unsigned char foo = 1;
for (; foo ; ) {
Statement(&foo);
}
}
So when I have this function, and I print it to the console via multiple statements, I get the expected results:
0
1
But when I print the function out through just one cout statement on the same line, I get:
3 2
(This is after the initial 0 and 1 that were previously printed)
Why does it print backwards?
#include "stdafx.h"
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int addOne()
{
static int s_num = -1;
return ++s_num;
}
int main()
{
cout << addOne() << "\n";
cout << addOne() << "\n";
cout << addOne() << " " << addOne() << "\n";
return 0;
}
You are actually stumbling on unspecified behavior. In this context, and any other such context where the operators are of the same precedence, the function calls can be evaluated in any order. In this case, the compiler chose to evaluate the second function call before the first, but other compilers might do it differently.
Below is a output question.I am not able to understand why its answer is 30.
#include<iostream>
using namespace std; //namespace std is being used
int &fun()
{
static int x = 10; //x is static
return x;
}
int main()
{
fun() = 30;
cout << fun(); //fun() called
return 0;
}
OUTPUT:30
Can anybody tell why output is coming to be 30 and also can explain the role of static keyword
In computer programming, a static variable is a variable that has been allocated statically—whose lifetime or "extent" extends across the entire run of the program
void foo()
{
int a = 10;
static int b = 10;
a++;
b++;
std::cout << "a : " << a << " , b : " << b << std::endl;
}
A reference variable is an alias, that is, another name for an already existing variable. Once a reference is initialized with a variable, either the variable name or the reference name may be used to refer to the variable.
int a = 4;
int b = a;
int &c = a;
c++;
std::cout << "b = " << b << std::endl; //4
std::cout << "a = " << a << std::endl; //5
std::cout << "c = " << c << std::endl; //5
/* Becaues c is a refence to a, it means that
a and c are just different names to the same memory location
so updating either one updates the actual value in memory
*/
a++;
std::cout << "c = " << c << std::endl; //6
std::cout << "a = " << a << std::endl; //6
//consider the function below:
int &bar()
{
static int a = 5;
std::cout << "a is " << a << std::endl;
return a;
}
Testing the two:
int main()
{
for (int i = 0; i < 3; i++)
foo();
//for every call of foo():
//memory allocation for a is created and deleted when a goes out of scope
//memoery allocation for b extends through out the life of the program
//bar() returns a reference to "a" i.e
int reference_to_a = bar(); //prints 5
reference_to_a = 30;
bar(); //prints 30
bar() = 50; //prints 30 and later assigns 50 to the reference returned.
bar(); //prints 50
}
static make the variable persist across function calls.
which means static int x = 10; will be executed once when func is called for the first time.
int static_test()
{
static int x = 10;
x++;
return x;
}
static_test(); // first call will return 11
static_test(); // second call will return 12 because the value of x ( was saved and was then incremented)
static_test(); // third call will return 13
Now, you need to understand what reference are. To understand what reference are you need to understand pointers. I am guessing you will easily find some website explaining those two.
case 1:
#include<iostream>
using namespace std; //namespace std is being used
int &fun()
{
int x = 10; //x is static
return x;
}
int main()
{
fun() = 30;
cout << fun(); //fun() called
return 0;
}
Here, in the call fun(), we are declaring a local variable int x, which goes out of scope once it returns from fun().
so, in the line cout << fun() a new variable is declared and address of the new variable is returned.
case 2:
static int x = 10;
here, since variable 'x' is static, it can be initialized only once. i.e., the first time x is initialized to 5 and then over written to 30.
now when you are making the function call subsequent times, static int x = 5 is ignored. Hence, it returns the value 30
In the program below I call a function foo() which sets a global variable i
and then calls the constructor of class A, where i should also be set, but
to 10. However the output of my program is 3 0, can you please explain?
#include <iostream>
int i;
class A
{
public:
~A()
{
i=10;
}
};
int foo()
{
i = 3;
A ob;
return i;
}
int main()
{
std::cout << "i = " << foo() << " " << i << "\n";
}
There are two important points to consider here:
The order of evaluation of arguments to a function is Unspecified. So either:
foo() gets executed first or
i gets printed first
It is specific to your compiler. Looks like your compiler evaluates argument from right to left, hence the global i which is 0 gets evaluated as 0. Remember that this order may be different for other compilers and you should not rely on behavior of one implementation.
As for why 3? The destructor for ob gets called after the function returns. So i gets set to 10 after the return, what gets returned is a copy and that copy has a value 3.
Its because return value gets copied after destructor.
I gets printed first and foo gets called later so the output 3 0.
If you print like below
cout << "i = " << i <<" " << foo()<< endl;
you will see 10 3 as output.
At the moment you are passing the 'i' as the argument, it's value is zero. The foo() will change the value in the destructor to 10 AFTER that.
As juanchopanza suggested, add another line std::cout << i; and you will see what you expect, because at that point the value is 10.
Print the foo() and i by using two cout statements as follows,
cout << "i of foo = " << foo();
cout <<"\ni in main = " << i << endl;
The output will be
i of foo = 3
i in main = 10
Earlier you were getting 3 0 as output because the overloaded operator << was being evaluated from left to right by your compiler.