I have written an attempt at my own RSA algorithm, but the encryption portion isn't quite working when I use fairly large numbers (nothing like the size which should be used for RSA) and I'm not sure why.
It works in the following way:
The input is a list of characters, for this example "abc"
This is converted to an array: [10,11,12]. (I have chosen 10 - 35 for lower case letters so that they are all 2 digit numbers just to make it easier)
The numbers are combined to form 121110 (using 12*100^2 + 11*100^1 + 10*100^0)
Apply the algorithm: m^e (mod n)
This is simplified using a^b (mod n) = a^c (mod n) * a^d (mod n)
This works for small values in that it can be deciphered using the decryption program which I have written.
When using larger values the output is always 1844674407188030241, with a little bit of research I found that this is roughly 2^64 (to 10 significant figures, it has been pointed out that odd numbers can't be powers of two, oops). I am sure that there is something that I have overlooked and I apologise for what (I really hope) will be a trivial question with an easy answer. Why is the output value always 2^64 and what can I change to fix it? Thank you very much for any help, here is my code:
#include <iostream>
#include <string>
#include <math.h>
int returnVal (char x)
{
return (int) x;
}
unsigned long long modExp(unsigned long long b, unsigned long long e, unsigned long long m)
{
unsigned long long remainder;
int x = 1;
while (e != 0)
{
remainder = e % 2;
e= e/2;
if (remainder == 1)
x = (x * b) % m;
b= (b * b) % m;
}
return x;
}
unsigned mysteryFunction(const std::string& input)
{
unsigned result = 0;
unsigned factor = 1;
for (size_t i = 0; i < input.size(); ++i)
{
result += factor * (input[i] - 87);
factor *= 100;
}
return result;
}
int main()
{
unsigned long long p = 70021;
unsigned long long q = 80001;
int e = 7;
unsigned long long n = p * q;
std::string foo = "ab";
for (int i = 0; i < foo.length(); i++);
{
std::cout << modExp (mysteryFunction(foo), e, n);
}
}
Your code has several problems.
Problem 1: Inconsistent use of unsigned long long.
int x = 1;
Changing this declaration in modExp to unsigned long long causes the program to give a more reasonable-looking result. I don't whether it's the correct result, but it's less than n, at least. I'm still not sure what the exact mechanism of the error was. I can see ways it would have screwed things up, but none that could have caused an output of 1844674407188030241.
Problem 2: Composite "primes".
For RSA, p and q both need to be prime. Neither p nor q is prime in your code.
70021 = 7^2 * 1429
80001 = 3^2 * 2963
In mysteryFunction, you subtract 89, which corresponds to 'W', from the input characters. You probably want to subtract '97' instead, which corresponds to 'a'.
Related
I am doing this coding question where they ask you to enter numbers N and M, and you are supposed to output the Nth fibonacci number mod M. My code runs rather slowly and I would like to learn how to speed it up.
#include<bits/stdc++.h>
using namespace std;
long long fib(long long N)
{
if (N <= 1)
return N;
return fib(N-1) + fib(N-2);
}
int main ()
{
long long N;
cin >> N;
long long M;
cin >> M;
long long b;
b = fib(N) % M;
cout << b;
getchar();
return 0;
}
While the program you wrote is pretty much the go-to example of recursion in education, it is really a pretty damn bad algorithm as you have found out. Try to write up the call tree for fib(7) and you will find that the number of calls you make balloons dramatically.
There are many ways of speeding it up and keeping it from recalculating the same values over and over. Somebody already linked to a bunch of algorithms in the comments - a simple loop can easily make it linear in N instead of exponential.
One problem with this though is that fibonacci numbers grow pretty fast: You can hold fib(93) in a 64 bit integer, but fib(94) overflows it.
However, you don't want the N'th fibonacci number - you want the N'th mod M. This changes the challenge a bit, because as long as M is smaller than MAX_INT_64 / 2 then you can calculate fib(N) mod M for any N.
Turn your attention to Modular arithmetic and the congruence relations. Specifically the one for addition, which says (changed to C++ syntax and simplified a bit):
If a1 % m == b1 and a2 % m == b2 then (a1 + a2) % m == (b1 + b2) % m
Or, to give an example: 17 % 3 == 2, 22 % 3 == 1 => (17 + 22) % 3 == (2 + 1) % 3 == 3 % 3 == 0
This means that you can put the modulo operator into the middle of your algorithm so that you never add big numbers together and never overflow. This way you can easily calculate f.ex. fib(10000) mod 237.
There is one simple optimatimization in calling fib without calculating duplicate values. Also using loops instead of recursion may speed up the process:
int fib(int N) {
int f0 = 0;
int f1 = 1;
for (int i = 0; i < N; i++) {
int tmp = f0 + f1;
f0 = f1;
f1 = tmp;
}
return f1;
}
You can apply the modulo operator sugested by #Frodyne on top of this.
1st observation is that you can turn the recursion into a simple loop:
#include <cstdint>
std::uint64_t fib(std::uint16_t n) {
if (!n)
return 0;
std::uint64_t result[]{ 0,1 };
bool select = 1;
for (auto i = 1; i < n; ++i , select=!select)
{
result[!select] += result[select];
};
return result[select];
};
next you can memoize it:
#include <cstdint>
#include <vector>
std::uint64_t fib(std::uint16_t n) {
static std::vector<std::uint64_t> result{0,1};
if (result.size()>n)
return result[n];
std::uint64_t back[]{ result.crbegin()[1],result.back() };
bool select = 1;
result.reserve(n + 1);
for (auto i=result.size(); i < result.capacity();++i, select = !select)
result.push_back(back[!select] += back[select]);
return result[n];
};
Another option would be an algebraic formula.
cheers,
FM.
In my code I am trying to multiply two numbers. The algorithm is simple as (k)*(k-1)^n. I stored the product (k-1)^n in variable p1 and then I multiply it with k. For n=10, k=10 (k-1)^n-1 should be 387420489 and I got this in variable p1 but on multiplying it with k, I get a negative number. I used modulus but instead of 3874208490, I get some other large positive number. What is the correct approach?
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
typedef long long ll;
ll big = 1000000000 + 7;
ll multiply(ll a, ll b)
{
ll ans = 1;
for (int i = 1; i <= b; i++)
ans = ans * a;
return ans % big;
}
int main()
{
int t;
scanf("%d", &t);
while (t--)
{
ll n, k;
cin >> n >> k;
ll p1 = multiply(k - 1, n - 1);
cout << p1 << endl; // this gives correct value
ll p2 = (k % big) * (p1 % big);
cout << ((p2 + big) % big) % big << endl;
}
}
What is ll type? If it is just int (and I pretty sure it is), it gets overflowed, because 32-bit signed type can't store values more than (2^31)-1, which approximately equals to 2 * 10^9. You can use long long int to make it work, then your code will work with the results less than 2^63.
It's not surprising you get an overflow. I plugged your equation into wolfram alpha, fixing n at 10 and iterating over k from 0 to 100.
The curve gets very vertical, very quickly at around k = 80.
10^21 requires 70 binary bits to represent it, and you only have 63 in a long long.
You're going to have to decide what the limits of this algorithm's parameters are and pick data types corresponding. Perhaps a double would be more suitable?
link to plot is here
I am trying to solve a question in which i need to find out the number of possible ways to make a team of two members.(note: a team can have at most two person)
After making this code, It works properly but in some test cases it shows floating point error ad i can't find out what it is exactly.
Input: 1st line : Number of test cases
2nd line: number of total person
Thank you
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
long C(long n, long r)
{
long f[n + 1];
f[0] = 1;
for (long i = 1; i <= n; i++)
{
f[i] = i * f[i - 1];
}
return f[n] / f[r] / f[n - r];
}
int main()
{
long n, r, m,t;
cin>>t;
while(t--)
{
cin>>n;
r=1;
cout<<C(n, min(r, n - r))+1<<endl;
}
return 0;
}
You aren't getting a floating point exception. You are getting a divide by zero exception. Because your code is attempting to divide by the number 0 (which can't be done on a computer).
When you invoke C(100, 1) the main loop that initializes the f array inside C increases exponentially. Eventually, two values are multiplied such that i * f[i-1] is zero due to overflow. That leads to all the subsequent f[i] values being initialized to zero. And then the division that follows the loop is a division by zero.
Although purists on these forums will say this is undefined, here's what's really happening on most 2's complement architectures. Or at least on my computer....
At i==21:
f[20] is already equal to 2432902008176640000
21 * 2432902008176640000 overflows for 64-bit signed, and will typically become -4249290049419214848 So at this point, your program is bugged and is now in undefined behavior.
At i==66
f[65] is equal to 0x8000000000000000. So 66 * f[65] gets calculated as zero for reasons that make sense to me, but should be understood as undefined behavior.
With f[66] assigned to 0, all subsequent assignments of f[i] become zero as well. After the main loop inside C is over, the f[n-r] is zero. Hence, divide by zero error.
Update
I went back and reverse engineered your problem. It seems like your C function is just trying to compute this expression:
N!
-------------
R! * (N-R)!
Which is the "number of unique sorted combinations"
In which case instead of computing the large factorial of N!, we can reduce that expression to this:
n
[ ∏ i ]
n-r
--------------------
R!
This won't eliminate overflow, but will allow your C function to be able to take on larger values of N and R to compute the number of combinations without error.
But we can also take advantage of simple reduction before trying to do a big long factorial expression
For example, let's say we were trying to compute C(15,5). Mathematically that is:
15!
--------
10! 5!
Or as we expressed above:
1*2*3*4*5*6*7*8*9*10*11*12*13*14*15
-----------------------------------
1*2*3*4*5*6*7*8*9*10 * 1*2*3*4*5
The first 10 factors of the numerator and denominator cancel each other out:
11*12*13*14*15
-----------------------------------
1*2*3*4*5
But intuitively, you can see that "12" in the numerator is already evenly divisible by denominators 2 and 3. And that 15 in the numerator is evenly divisible by 5 in the denominator. So simple reduction can be applied:
11*2*13*14*3
-----------------------------------
1 * 4
There's even more room for greatest common divisor reduction, but this is a great start.
Let's start with a helper function that computes the product of all the values in a list.
long long multiply_vector(std::vector<int>& values)
{
long long result = 1;
for (long i : values)
{
result = result * i;
if (result < 0)
{
std::cout << "ERROR - multiply_range hit overflow" << std::endl;
return 0;
}
}
return result;
}
Not let's implement C as using the above function after doing the reduction operation
long long C(int n, int r)
{
if ((r >= n) || (n < 0) || (r < 0))
{
std::cout << "invalid parameters passed to C" << std::endl;
return 0;
}
// compute
// n!
// -------------
// r! * (n-r)!
//
// assume (r < n)
// Which maps to
// n
// [∏ i]
// n - r
// --------------------
// R!
int end = n;
int start = n - r + 1;
std::vector<int> numerators;
std::vector<int> denominators;
long long numerator = 1;
long long denominator = 1;
for (int i = start; i <= end; i++)
{
numerators.push_back(i);
}
for (int i = 2; i <= r; i++)
{
denominators.push_back(i);
}
size_t n_length = numerators.size();
size_t d_length = denominators.size();
for (size_t n = 0; n < n_length; n++)
{
int nval = numerators[n];
for (size_t d = 0; d < d_length; d++)
{
int dval = denominators[d];
if ((nval % dval) == 0)
{
denominators[d] = 1;
numerators[n] = nval / dval;
}
}
}
numerator = multiply_vector(numerators);
denominator = multiply_vector(denominators);
if ((numerator == 0) || (denominator == 0))
{
std::cout << "Giving up. Can't resolve overflow" << std::endl;
return 0;
}
long long result = numerator / denominator;
return result;
}
You are not using floating-point. And you seem to be using variable sized arrays, which is a C feature and possibly a C++ extension but not standard.
Anyway, you will get overflow and therefore undefined behaviour even for rather small values of n.
In practice the overflow will lead to array elements becoming zero for not much larger values of n.
Your code will then divide by zero and crash.
They also might have a test case like (1000000000, 999999999) which is trivial to solve, but not for your code which I bet will crash.
You don't specify what you mean by "floating point error" - I reckon you are referring to the fact that you are doing an integer division rather than a floating point one so that you will always get integers rather than floats.
int a, b;
a = 7;
b = 2;
std::cout << a / b << std::endl;
this will result in 3, not 3.5! If you want floating point result you should use floats instead like this:
float a, b;
a = 7;
b = 2;
std::cout << a / b << std::end;
So the solution to your problem would simply be to use float instead of long long int.
Note also that you are using variable sized arrays which won't work in C++ - why not use std::vector instead??
Array syntax as:
type name[size]
Note: size must a constant not a variable
Example #1:
int name[10];
Example #2:
const int asize = 10;
int name[asize];
I am doing a factorial program with strings because i need the factorial of Numbers greater than 250
I intent with:
string factorial(int n){
string fact="1";
for(int i=2; i<=n; i++){
b=atoi(fact)*n;
}
}
But the problem is that atoi not works. How can i convert my string in a integer.
And The most important Do I want to know if the program of this way will work with the factorial of 400 for example?
Not sure why you are trying to use string. Probably to save some space by not using integer vector? This is my solution by using integer vector to store factorial and print.Works well with 400 or any large number for that matter!
//Factorial of a big number
#include<iostream>
#include<vector>
using namespace std;
int main(){
int num;
cout<<"Enter the number :";
cin>>num;
vector<int> res;
res.push_back(1);
int carry=0;
for(int i=2;i<=num;i++){
for(int j=0;j<res.size();j++){
int tmp=res[j]*i;
res[j]=(tmp+carry)%10 ;
carry=(tmp+carry)/10;
}
while(carry!=0){
res.push_back(carry%10);
carry=carry/10;
}
}
for(int i=res.size()-1;i>=0;i--) cout<<res[i];
cout<<endl;
return 0;
}
Enter the number :400
Factorial of 400 :64034522846623895262347970319503005850702583026002959458684445942802397169186831436278478647463264676294350575035856810848298162883517435228961988646802997937341654150838162426461942352307046244325015114448670890662773914918117331955996440709549671345290477020322434911210797593280795101545372667251627877890009349763765710326350331533965349868386831339352024373788157786791506311858702618270169819740062983025308591298346162272304558339520759611505302236086810433297255194852674432232438669948422404232599805551610635942376961399231917134063858996537970147827206606320217379472010321356624613809077942304597360699567595836096158715129913822286578579549361617654480453222007825818400848436415591229454275384803558374518022675900061399560145595206127211192918105032491008000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000
There's a web site that will calculate factorials for you: http://www.nitrxgen.net/factorialcalc.php. It reports:
The resulting factorial of 250! is 493 digits long.
The result also contains 62 trailing zeroes (which constitutes to 12.58% of the whole number)
3232856260909107732320814552024368470994843717673780666747942427112823747555111209488817915371028199450928507353189432926730931712808990822791030279071281921676527240189264733218041186261006832925365133678939089569935713530175040513178760077247933065402339006164825552248819436572586057399222641254832982204849137721776650641276858807153128978777672951913990844377478702589172973255150283241787320658188482062478582659808848825548800000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000
Many systems using C++ double only work up to 1E+308 or thereabouts; the value of 250! is too large to store in such numbers.
Consequently, you'll need to use some sort of multi-precision arithmetic library, either of your own devising using C++ string values, or using some other widely-used multi-precision library (GNU GMP for example).
The code below uses unsigned double long to calculate very large digits.
#include<iostream.h>
int main()
{
long k=1;
while(k!=0)
{
cout<<"\nLarge Factorial Calculator\n\n";
cout<<"Enter a number be calculated:";
cin>>k;
if (k<=33)
{
unsigned double long fact=1;
fact=1;
for(int b=k;b>=1;b--)
{
fact=fact*b;
}
cout<<"\nThe factorial of "<<k<<" is "<<fact<<"\n";
}
else
{
int numArr[10000];
int total,rem=0,count;
register int i;
//int i;
for(i=0;i<10000;i++)
numArr[i]=0;
numArr[10000]=1;
for(count=2;count<=k;count++)
{
while(i>0)
{
total=numArr[i]*count+rem;
rem=0;
if(total>9)
{
numArr[i]=total%10;
rem=total/10;
}
else
{
numArr[i]=total;
}
i--;
}
rem=0;
total=0;
i=10000;
}
cout<<"The factorial of "<<k<<" is \n\n";
for(i=0;i<10000;i++)
{
if(numArr[i]!=0 || count==1)
{
cout<<numArr[i];
count=1;
}
}
cout<<endl;
}
cout<<"\n\n";
}//while
return 0;
}
Output:
![Large Factorial Calculator
Enter a number be calculated:250
The factorial of 250 is
32328562609091077323208145520243684709948437176737806667479424271128237475551112
09488817915371028199450928507353189432926730931712808990822791030279071281921676
52724018926473321804118626100683292536513367893908956993571353017504051317876007
72479330654023390061648255522488194365725860573992226412548329822048491377217766
50641276858807153128978777672951913990844377478702589172973255150283241787320658
18848206247858265980884882554880000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000
000000000000][1]
You can make atoi compile by adding c_str(), but it will be a long way to go till getting factorial. Currently you have no b around. And if you had, you still multiply int by int. So even if you eventually convert that to string before return, your range is still limited. Until you start to actually do multiplication with ASCII or use a bignum library there's no point to have string around.
Your factorial depends on conversion to int, which will overflow pretty fast, so you want be able to compute large factorials that way. To properly implement computation on big numbers you need to implement logic as for computation on paper, rules that you were tought in primary school, but treat long long ints as "atoms", not individual digits. And don't do it on strings, it would be painfully slow and full of nasty conversions
If you are going to solve factorial for numbers larger than around 12, you need a different approach than using atoi, since that just gives you a 32-bit integer, and no matter what you do, you are not going to get more than 2 billion (give or take) out of that. Even if you double the size of the number, you'll only get to about 20 or 21.
It's not that hard (relatively speaking) to write a string multiplication routine that takes a small(ish) number and multiplies each digit and ripples the results through to the the number (start from the back of the number, and fill it up).
Here's my obfuscated code - it is intentionally written such that you can't just take it and hand in as school homework, but it appears to work (matches the number in Jonathan Leffler's answer), and works up to (at least) 20000! [subject to enough memory].
std::string operator*(const std::string &s, int x)
{
int l = (int)s.length();
std::string r;
r.resize(l);
std::fill(r.begin(), r.end(), '0');
int b = 0;
int e = ~b;
const int c = 10;
for(int i = l+e; i != e;)
{
int d = (s[i]-0x30) * x, p = i + b;
while (d && p > e)
{
int t = r[p] - 0x30 + (d % c);
r[p] = (t % c) + 0x30;
d = t / c + d / c;
p--;
}
while (d)
{
r = static_cast<char>((d % c) +0x30)+r;
d /= c;
b++;
}
i--;
}
return r;
}
In C++, the largest integer type is 'long long', and it hold 64 bits of memory, so obviously you can't store 250! in an integer type. It is a clever idea to use strings, but what you are basically doing with your code is (I have never used the atoi() function, so I don't know if it even works with strings larger than 1 character, but it doesn't matter):
covert the string to integer (a string that if this code worked well, in one moment contains the value of 249!)
multiply the value of the string
So, after you are done multiplying, you don't even convert the integer back to string. And even if you did that, at one moment when you convert the string back to an integer, your program will crash, because the integer won't be able to hold the value of the string.
My suggestion is, to use some class for big integers. Unfortunately, there isn't one available in C++, so you'll have to code it by yourself or find one on the internet. But, don't worry, even if you code it by yourself, if you think a little, you'll see it's not that hard. You can even use your idea with the strings, which, even tough is not the best approach, for this problem, will still yield the results in the desired time not using too much memory.
This is a typical high precision problem.
You can use an array of unsigned long long instead of string.
like this:
struct node
{
unsigned long long digit[100000];
}
It should be faster than string.
But You still can use string unless you are urgent.
It may take you a few days to calculate 10000!.
I like use string because it is easy to write.
#include <bits/stdc++.h>
#pragma GCC optimize (2)
using namespace std;
const int MAXN = 90;
int n, m;
int a[MAXN];
string base[MAXN], f[MAXN][MAXN];
string sum, ans;
template <typename _T>
void Swap(_T &a, _T &b)
{
_T temp;
temp = a;
a = b;
b = temp;
}
string operator + (string s1, string s2)
{
string ret;
int digit, up = 0;
int len1 = s1.length(), len2 = s2.length();
if (len1 < len2) Swap(s1, s2), Swap(len1, len2);
while(len2 < len1) s2 = '0' + s2, len2++;
for (int i = len1 - 1; i >= 0; i--)
{
digit = s1[i] + s2[i] - '0' - '0' + up; up = 0;
if (digit >= 10) up = digit / 10, digit %= 10;
ret = char(digit + '0') + ret;
}
if (up) ret = char(up + '0') + ret;
return ret;
}
string operator * (string str, int p)
{
string ret = "0", f; int digit, mul;
int len = str.length();
for (int i = len - 1; i >= 0; i--)
{
f = "";
digit = str[i] - '0';
mul = p * digit;
while(mul)
{
digit = mul % 10 , mul /= 10;
f = char(digit + '0') + f;
}
for (int j = 1; j < len - i; j++) f = f + '0';
ret = ret + f;
}
return ret;
}
int main()
{
freopen("factorial.out", "w", stdout);
string ans = "1";
for (int i = 1; i <= 5000; i++)
{
ans = ans * i;
cout << i << "! = " << ans << endl;
}
return 0;
}
Actually, I know where the problem raised At the point where we multiply , there is the actual problem ,when numbers get multiplied and get bigger and bigger.
this code is tested and is giving the correct result.
#include <bits/stdc++.h>
using namespace std;
#define mod 72057594037927936 // 2^56 (17 digits)
// #define mod 18446744073709551616 // 2^64 (20 digits) Not supported
long long int prod_uint64(long long int x, long long int y)
{
return x * y % mod;
}
int main()
{
long long int n=14, s = 1;
while (n != 1)
{
s = prod_uint64(s , n) ;
n--;
}
}
Expexted output for 14! = 87178291200
The logic should be:
unsigned int factorial(int n)
{
unsigned int b=1;
for(int i=2; i<=n; i++){
b=b*n;
}
return b;
}
However b may get overflowed. So you may use a bigger integral type.
Or you can use float type which is inaccurate but can hold much bigger numbers.
But it seems none of the built-in types are big enough.
I need to use pow in my c++ program and if i call the pow() function this way:
long long test = pow(7, e);
Where
e is an integer value with the value of 23.
I always get 821077879 as a result. If i calculate it with the windows calculator i get 27368747340080916343.. Whats wrong here? ):
I tried to cast to different types but nothing helped here... What could be the reason for this? How i can use pow() correctly?
Thanks!
The result is doesn't fit in long long.
If you want to deal with very big numbers then use a library like GMP
Or store it as a floating point (which won't be as precise).
Applying modulo:
const unsigned int b = 5; // base
const unsigned int e = 27; // exponent
const unsigned int m = 7; // modulo
unsigned int r = 1; // remainder
for (int i = 0; i < e; ++i)
r = (r * b) % m;
// r is now (pow(5,27) % 7)
723 is too big to fit into a long long (assuming it's 64 bits). The value is getting truncated.
Edit: Oh, why didn't you say that you wanted pow(b, e) % m instead of just pow(b, e)? That makes things a whole lot simpler, because you don't need bigints after all. Just do all your arithmetic mod m. Pubby's solution works, but here's a faster one (O(log e) instead of O(e)).
unsigned int powmod(unsigned int b, unsigned int e, unsigned int m)
{
assert(m != 0);
if (e == 0)
{
return 1;
}
else if (e % 2 == 0)
{
unsigned int squareRoot = powmod(b, e / 2, m);
return (squareRoot * squareRoot) % m;
}
else
{
return (powmod(b, e - 1, m) * b) % m;
}
}
See it live: https://ideone.com/YsG7V
#include<iostream>
#include<cmath>
int main()
{
long double ldbl = pow(7, 23);
double dbl = pow(7, 23);
std::cout << ldbl << ", " << dbl << std::endl;
}
Output: 2.73687e+19, 2.73687e+19