Multithreading: Why two programs is better than one? - c++

Shortly about my problem:
I have a computer with 2 sockets of AMD Opteron 6272 and 64GB RAM.
I run one multithread program on all 32 cores and get speed 15% less in comparison with the case when I run 2 programs, each on one 16 cores socket.
How do I make one-program version as fast as two-programs?
More details:
I have a big number of tasks and want to fully load all 32 cores of the system.
So I pack the tasks in groups by 1000. Such a group needs about 120Mb input data, and take about 10 seconds to complete on one core. To make the test ideal I copy these groups 32 times and using ITBB's parallel_for loop distribute tasks between 32 cores.
I use pthread_setaffinity_np to insure that system would not make my threads jump between cores. And to insure that all cores are used consequtively.
I use mlockall(MCL_FUTURE) to insure that system would not make my memory jump between sockets.
So the code looks like this:
void operator()(const blocked_range<size_t> &range) const
{
for(unsigned int i = range.begin(); i != range.end(); ++i){
pthread_t I = pthread_self();
int s;
cpu_set_t cpuset;
pthread_t thread = I;
CPU_ZERO(&cpuset);
CPU_SET(threadNumberToCpuMap[i], &cpuset);
s = pthread_setaffinity_np(thread, sizeof(cpu_set_t), &cpuset);
mlockall(MCL_FUTURE); // lock virtual memory to stay at physical address where it was allocated
TaskManager manager;
for (int j = 0; j < fNTasksPerThr; j++){
manager.SetData( &(InpData->fInput[j]) );
manager.Run();
}
}
}
Only the computing time is important to me therefore I prepare input data in separate parallel_for loop. And do not include preparation time in time measurements.
void operator()(const blocked_range<size_t> &range) const
{
for(unsigned int i = range.begin(); i != range.end(); ++i){
pthread_t I = pthread_self();
int s;
cpu_set_t cpuset;
pthread_t thread = I;
CPU_ZERO(&cpuset);
CPU_SET(threadNumberToCpuMap[i], &cpuset);
s = pthread_setaffinity_np(thread, sizeof(cpu_set_t), &cpuset);
mlockall(MCL_FUTURE); // lock virtual memory to stay at physical address where it was allocated
InpData[i].fInput = new ProgramInputData[fNTasksPerThr];
for(int j=0; j<fNTasksPerThr; j++){
InpData[i].fInput[j] = InpDataPerThread.fInput[j];
}
}
}
Now I run all these on 32 cores and see speed of ~1600 tasks per second.
Then I create two version of program, and with taskset and pthread insure that first run on 16 cores of first socket and second - on second socket. I run them one next to each other using simply & command in shell:
program1 & program2 &
Each of these programs achieves speed of ~900 tasks/s. In total this are >1800 tasks/s, which is 15% more than one-program version.
What do I miss?
I consider that may be the problem is in libraries, which I load to memory of muster thread only. Can this be a problem? Can I copy libraries data so it would be available independently on both sockets?

I would guess that it's STL/boost memory allocation that's spreading memory for your collections, etc across numa nodes due to the fact that they're not numa aware and you have threads in the program running on each node.
Custom allocators for all of the STL/boost things that you use might help (but is likely a huge job).

You might be suffering a bad case of false sharing of cache: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/False_sharing
Your threads probably share access to the same data structure through the block_range reference. If speed is all you need, you might want to pass a copy to each thread. If your data is too huge to fit onto the call-stack you could dynamically allocate a copy of each range in different cache segments (i.e. just make sure they are far enough appart).
Or maybe I need to see the rest of the code to understand what you are doing better.

Related

OpenMP has low CPU usage

My OpenMP Implementation shows a really bad performance. When I profile it with vtune, I have a super low CPU usage and I don't know why. Does anyone have an idea?
Hardware:
NUMA architecture with 28 cores (56 Threads)
Implementation:
struct Lineitem {
int64_t l_quantity;
int64_t l_extendedprice;
float l_discount;
unsigned int l_shipdate;
};
Lineitem* array = (Lineitem*)malloc(sizeof(Lineitem) * array_length);
// array will be filled
#pragma omp parallel for num_threads(48) shared(array, array_length, date1, date2) reduction(+: sum)
for (unsigned long i = 0; i < array_length; i++)
{
if (array[i].l_shipdate >= date1 && array[i].l_shipdate < date2 &&
array[i].l_discount >= 0.08f && array[i].l_discount <= 0.1f &&
array[i].l_quantity < 24)
{
sum += (array[i].l_extendedprice * array[i].l_discount);
}
}
Additionally as information, I am using cmake and clang.
I was able to find the cause of my poor OpenMP performance. I am running my OpenMP code inside a thread pinned to a core. If I don't pin the thread to a core, then the OpenMP code is fast.
Probably the threads created by OpenMP in the pinned thread are also executed on the core where the pinned thread is pinned. Consequently, the whole OpenMP code runs on only one core with many threads.
Modern CPUs will only show high performance if there is lots of cache data to be reused. Since you are only operating linearly on an array, there is no such thing and you are limited by memory bandwdith. Your cores will indeed be operating at a small fraction of their full utilization.
Things may be even worse: you have an array of structures from which you use certain fields. If there are other fields that you don't use, you get the phenomenon that you don't fully use the cachelines that you load from memory, dividing the performance yet again by a factor. Please amend your question by including the data layout of your structure/class.

C++ multithreads run time issue

I have been studying C++ multithreads and get a question about it.
Here is what I am understanding about multithreads.
One of the reasons we use multithreads is to reduce the run time, right?
For example, I think if we use two threads we can expect half of the execution time.
So, I tried to code to prove it.
Here is the code.
#include <vector>
#include <iostream>
#include <thread>
#include <future>
using namespace std;
#define iterationNumber 1000000
void myFunction(const int index, const int numberInThread, promise<unsigned long>&& p, const vector<int>& numberList) {
clock_t begin,end;
int firstIndex = index * numberInThread;
int lastIndex = firstIndex + numberInThread;
vector<int>::const_iterator first = numberList.cbegin() + firstIndex;
vector<int>::const_iterator last = numberList.cbegin() + lastIndex;
vector<int> numbers(first,last);
unsigned long result = 0;
begin = clock();
for(int i = 0 ; i < numbers.size(); i++) {
result += numbers.at(i);
}
end = clock();
cout << "thread" << index << " took " << ((float)(end-begin))/CLOCKS_PER_SEC << endl;
p.set_value(result);
}
int main(void)
{
vector<int> numberList;
vector<thread> t;
vector<future<unsigned long>> futures;
vector<unsigned long> result;
const int NumberOfThreads = thread::hardware_concurrency() ?: 2;
int numberInThread = iterationNumber / NumberOfThreads;
clock_t begin,end;
for(int i = 0 ; i < iterationNumber ; i++) {
int randomN = rand() % 10000 + 1;
numberList.push_back(randomN);
}
for(int j = 0 ; j < NumberOfThreads; j++){
promise<unsigned long> promises;
futures.push_back(promises.get_future());
t.push_back(thread(myFunction, j, numberInThread, std::move(promises), numberList));
}
for_each(t.begin(), t.end(), std::mem_fn(&std::thread::join));
for (int i = 0; i < futures.size(); i++) {
result.push_back(futures.at(i).get());
}
unsigned long RRR = 0;
begin = clock();
for(int i = 0 ; i < numberList.size(); i++) {
RRR += numberList.at(i);
}
end = clock();
cout << "not by thread took " << ((float)(end-begin))/CLOCKS_PER_SEC << endl;
}
Because the hardware concurrency of my laptop is 4, it will create 4 threads and each takes a quarter of numberList and sum up the numbers.
However, the result was different than I expected.
thread0 took 0.007232
thread1 took 0.007402
thread2 took 0.010035
thread3 took 0.011759
not by thread took 0.009654
Why? Why it took more time than serial version(not by thread).
For example, I think if we use two threads we can expect half of the
execution time.
You'd think so, but sadly, that is often not the case in practice. The ideal "N cores means 1/Nth the execution time" scenario occurs only when the N cores can execute completely in parallel, without any core's actions interfering with the performance of the other cores.
But what your threads are doing is just summing up different sub-sections of an array... surely that can benefit from being executed in parallel? The answer is that in principle it can, but on a modern CPU, simple addition is so blindingly fast that it isn't really a factor in how long it takes a loop to complete. What really does limit the execute speed of a loop is access to RAM. Compared to the speed of the CPU, RAM access is very slow -- and on most desktop computers, each CPU has only one connection to RAM, regardless of how many cores it has. That means that what you are really measuring in your program is the speed at which a big array of integers can be read in from RAM to the CPU, and that speed is roughly the same -- equal to the CPU's memory-bus bandwidth -- regardless of whether it's one core doing the reading-in of the memory, or four.
To demonstrate how much RAM access is a factor, below is a modified/simplified version of your test program. In this version of the program, I've removed the big vectors, and instead the computation is just a series of calls to the (relatively expensive) sin() function. Note that in this version, the loop is only accessing a few memory locations, rather than thousands, and thus a core that is running the computation loop will not have to periodically wait for more data to be copied in from RAM to its local cache:
#include <vector>
#include <iostream>
#include <thread>
#include <chrono>
#include <math.h>
using namespace std;
static int iterationNumber = 1000000;
unsigned long long threadElapsedTimeMicros[10];
unsigned long threadResults[10];
void myFunction(const int index, const int numberInThread)
{
unsigned long result = 666;
std::chrono::steady_clock::time_point begin = std::chrono::steady_clock::now();
for(int i=0; i<numberInThread; i++) result += 100*sin(result);
std::chrono::steady_clock::time_point end = std::chrono::steady_clock::now();
threadResults[index] = result;
threadElapsedTimeMicros[index] = std::chrono::duration_cast<std::chrono::microseconds>(end - begin).count();
// We'll print out the value of threadElapsedTimeMicros[index] later on,
// after all the threads have been join()'d.
// If we printed it out now it might affect the timing of the other threads
// that may still be executing
}
int main(void)
{
vector<thread> t;
const int NumberOfThreads = thread::hardware_concurrency();
const int numberInThread = iterationNumber / NumberOfThreads;
// Multithreaded approach
std::chrono::steady_clock::time_point allBegin = std::chrono::steady_clock::now();
for(int j = 0 ; j < NumberOfThreads; j++) t.push_back(thread(myFunction, j, numberInThread));
for(int j = 0 ; j < NumberOfThreads; j++) t[j].join();
std::chrono::steady_clock::time_point allEnd = std::chrono::steady_clock::now();
for(int j = 0 ; j < NumberOfThreads; j++) cout << " The computations in thread #" << j << ": result=" << threadResults[j] << ", took " << threadElapsedTimeMicros[j] << " microseconds" << std::endl;
cout << " Total time spent doing multithreaded computations was " << std::chrono::duration_cast<std::chrono::microseconds>(allEnd - allBegin).count() << " microseconds in total" << std::endl;
// And now, the single-threaded approach, for comparison
unsigned long result = 666;
std::chrono::steady_clock::time_point begin = std::chrono::steady_clock::now();
for(int i = 0 ; i < iterationNumber; i++) result += 100*sin(result);
std::chrono::steady_clock::time_point end = std::chrono::steady_clock::now();
cout << "result=" << result << ", single-threaded computation took " << std::chrono::duration_cast<std::chrono::microseconds>(end - begin).count() << " microseconds" << std::endl;
return 0;
}
When I run the above program on my dual-core Mac mini (i7 with hyperthreading), here are the results I get:
Jeremys-Mac-mini:~ lcsuser1$ g++ -std=c++11 -O3 ./temp.cpp
Jeremys-Mac-mini:~ lcsuser1$ ./a.out
The computations in thread #0: result=1062, took 11718 microseconds
The computations in thread #1: result=1062, took 11481 microseconds
The computations in thread #2: result=1062, took 11525 microseconds
The computations in thread #3: result=1062, took 11230 microseconds
Total time spent doing multithreaded computations was 16492 microseconds in total
result=1181, single-threaded computation took 49846 microseconds
So in this case the results are more like what you'd expect -- because memory access was not a bottleneck, each core was able to run at full speed, and complete its 25% portion of the total calculations in about 25% of the time that it took a single thread to complete 100% of the calculations... and since the four cores were running truly in parallel, the total time spent doing the calculations was about 33% of the time it took for the single-threaded routine to complete (ideally it would be 25% but there's some overhead involved in starting up and shutting down the threads, etc).
This is an explanation, for the beginner.
It's not technically accurate, but IMHO not that far from it that anyone takes damage from reading it.
It provides an entry into understanding the parallel processing terms.
Threads, Tasks, and Processes
It is important to know the difference between threads, and processes.
By default starting a new process, allocates a dedicated memory for that process. So they share memory with no other processes, and could (in theory) be run on separate computers.
(You can share memory with other processes, via operating system, or "shared memory", but you have to add these features, they are not by default available for your process)
Having multiple cores means that the each running process can be executed on any idle core.
So basically one program runs on one core, another program runs on a second core, and the background service doing something for you, runs on a third, (and so on and so forth)
Threads is something different.
For instance all processes will run in a main thread.
The operating system implements a scheduler, that is supposed to allocate cpu time for programs. In principle it will say:
Program A, get 0.01 seconds, than pause!
Program B, get 0.01 seconds, then pause!
Program A, get 0.01 seconds, then pause!
Program B, get 0.01 seconds, then pause!
you get the idea..
The scheduler typically can prioritize between threads, so some programs get more CPU time than others.
The scheduler can of course schedule threads on all cores, but if it does this within a process, (splits a process's threads over multiple cores) there can be a performance penalty as each core holds it's own very fast memory cache.
Since threads from the same process can access the same cache, sharing memory between threads is quite fast.
Accessing another cores cache is not as fast, (if even possible without going via RAM), so in general schedulers will not split a process over multiple cores.
The result is that all the threads belonging to a process runs on the same core.
| Core 1 | Core 2 | Core 3 |
| Process A, Thread 1 | Process C, Thread 1 | Process F, Thread 1|
| Process A, Thread 2 | Process D, Thread 1 | Process F, Thread 2|
| Process B, Thread 1 | Process E, Thread 1 | Process F, Thread 3|
| Process A, Thread 1 | Process C, Thread 1 | Process F, Thread 1|
| Process A, Thread 2 | Process D, Thread 1 | Process F, Thread 2|
| Process B, Thread 1 | Process E, Thread 1 | Process F, Thread 3|
A process can spawn multiple threads, they all share the parent threads memory area, and will normally all run on the core that the parent was running on.
It makes sense to spawn threads within a process, if you have an application that needs to respond to something that it cannot control the timing of.
I.E. the users presses on a cancel button, or attempts to move a window, while the application is running calculations that takes a long time to complete.
Responsiveness of the UI, requires the application to spend time reading, and handling what the user is attempting to do. This could be achieved in a main loop, if the program does parts of the calculation in each iteration.
However that get's complicated real fast, so instead of having the calculation code, exit in the middle of a calculation to check the UI, and update the UI, and then continue. You run the calculation code in another thread.
The scheduler then makes sure that the UI thread, and the calculation thread gets CPU time, so the UI responds to user input, while the calculation continues..
And your code stays fairly simple.
But I want to run my calculations another core to gain speed
To distribute calculations on multiple cores, you could spawn a new process for each calculation job. In this way the scheduler will know that each process get's it's own memory, and it can easily be launched on an idle core.
However you have a problem, you need to share memory with the other process, so it knows what to do.
A simple way of doing this, is sharing memory via the filesystem.
You could create a file with the data for the calculation, and then spawn a thread governing the execution (and communication) with another program, (so your UI is responsive, while we wait for the results).
The governing thread runs the other program via system commands, which starts it as another process.
The other program will be written such that it runs with the input file as input argument, so we can run it in multiple instances, on different files.
If the program self terminates when it's done, and creates an output file, it can run on any core, (or multiple) and your process can read the output file.
This actually works, and should the calculation take a long time (like many minutes) this is perhaps ok, even though we use files to communicate between our processes.
For calculations that only takes seconds, however, the file system is slow, and waiting for it will almost remove the gained performance of using processes instead of just using threads. So other more efficient memory sharing is used in real life. For instance creating a shared memory area in RAM.
The "create governing thread, and spawn subprocess, allow communication with process via governing thread, collect data when process is complete, and expose via governing thread" can be implemented in multiple ways.
Tasks
Well "tasks" is ambiguous.
In general it means "Process or thread that solves a task".
However, in certain languages like C#, it is something that implements a thread like thing, that the scheduler can treat as a process. Other languages that provide a similar feature typically dubs this either tasks or workers.
So with workers/tasks it appears to the programmer as if it was merely a thread, that you can share memory with easily, via references, and control like any other thread, by invoking methods on the thread.
But it appears to the scheduler as if it's a process that can be run on any core.
It implements the shared memory problem in a fairly efficient way, as part of the language, so the programmer won't have to re-invent this wheel for all tasks.
This is often referred to as "Hybrid threading" or simply "parallel threads"
Seems that you have some misconception about multi-threading. Simply using two threads cannot halve the processing time.
Multi-threading is a kind of complicated concept but you can easily find related materials on the web. You should read one of them first. But I will try to give a simple explanation with an example.
No matter how many CPUs(or cores) you have, the total handling capacity of the CPU will be always the same whether you use multi-thread or not, right? Then, where does the performance difference come from?
When a program runs on a device(computer) it uses not only CPU but also other system resources such as Networks, RAM, Hard drives, etc. If the flow of the program is serialized there will be a certain point of time when the CPU is idle waiting for other system resources to get done. But, in the case that the program runs with multiple threads(multiple flow), if a thread turns to idle(waiting some tasks done by other system resources) the other threads can use the CPU. Therefore, you can minimize the idle time of the CPU and improve the time performance. This is one of the most simple example about multi-threading.
Since your sample code is almost 'only CPU-consuming', using multi-thread could bring little improvement of performance. Sometimes it can be worse because multi-threading also comes with time cost of context-switching.
FYI, parallel processing is not the same as multi-threading.
This is very good to point out the problems with macs.
Provided you use a o.s. that can schedule threads in a useful manner, you have to consider if a problem is basically the product of 1 problem many times. An example is matrix multiplication. When you multiply 2 matrices there is a certain parts of it which are independent of the others. A 3x3 matrix times another 3x3 requires 9 dot products which can be computed independently of the others, which themselves require 3 multiplications and 2 additions but here the multiplications must be done first. So we see if we wanted to utilize multithreaded processor for this task we could use 9 cores or threads and given they get equal compute time or have same priority level (which is adjustable on windows) you would reduce the time to multiply a 3x3 matrices by 9. This is because we are essentially doing something 9 times which can be done at the same time by 9 people.
now for each of 9 threads we could have 3 cores perform multiplications totaling 3x9=24 cores all together now. Reducing time by t/24. But we have 18 additions and here we can get no gain from more cores. One addition must be piped into another. And the problem takes time t with one core or time t/24 ideally with 24 cores working together. Now you can see why problems are often seeked out if they are 'linear' because they can be done in parallel pretty good like graphics for example (some things like backside culling are sorting problems and inherently not linear so parallel processing has diminished performance boosts).
Then there is added overhead of starting threads and how they are scheduled by the o.s. and processor. Hope this helps.

Why main thread is slower than worker thread in pthread-win32?

void* worker(void*)
{
int clk = clock();
float val = 0;
for(int i = 0; i != 100000000; ++i)
{
val += sin(i);
}
printf("val: %f\n", val);
printf("worker: %d ms\n", clock() - clk);
return 0;
}
int main()
{
pthread_t tid;
pthread_create(&tid, NULL, worker, NULL);
int clk = clock();
float val = 0;
for(int i = 0; i != 100000000; ++i)
{
val += sin(i);
}
printf("val: %f\n", val);
printf("main: %d ms\n", clock() - clk);
pthread_join(tid, 0);
return 0;
}
Main thread and the worker thread are supposed to run equally fast, but the result is:
val: 0.782206
worker: 5017 ms
val: 0.782206
main: 8252 ms
Main thread is much slower, I don't know why....
Problem solved. It's the compiler's problem, GCC(MinGW) behaves weirdly on Windows.
I compliled the code in Visual Studio 2012, there's no speed difference.
Main thread and the worker thread are supposed to run equally fast, but the result is:
I have never seen a threading system outside a realtime OS which provided such guarantees. With windows threads and all other threading systems(I have also use posix threads, and whatever the lightweight threading on MacOS X is, and threads in C# threads) in Desktop systems it is my understanding that there are no performance guarantees in terms or how fast one thread will be in relation to another.
A possible explanation (speculation) could be that since you are using a modern quadcore it could be raising the clock rate on the main core. When there are mostly single threaded workloads modern i5/i7/AMD-FX systems raise the clock rate on one core to a pre-rated level that stock cooling can dissipate the heat for. On more parallel workloads all the cores get a smaller bump in clock speed, again pre-rated based on heat dissipation and when idle all of the cores are throttled down to minimize power usage. It is possible that the amount of background work is mostly performed on a single core and the amount of time the second thread spends on the second core is not enough to justify switching to the mode where all the cores speed is boosted.
I would try again with 4 threads and 10x the workload. If you have a tool that monitors CPU load and clock-speeds I would check that. Using that information you can infer if I am right or wrong.
Another option might be profiling and seeing if what part of the work is taking time. It could be that the OS calls are taking more time than your workload.
You could also test your software on another machine with different performance characteristics such as steady clock-speed or single core. This would provide more information.
What could be happening is that the worker thread execution is being interleaved with main's execution, so that some of the worker thread's execution time is being counted against main's time. You could try putting a sleep(10) (some time larger than the run-time of the worker and of main) at the very beginning of the worker and run again.

c++ pthread multithreading for 2 x Intel Xeon X5570, quad-core CPUs on Amazan EC2 HPC ubuntu instance

I wrote a program that employs multithreading for parallel computing. I have verified that on my system (OS X) it maxes out both cores simultaneously. I just ported it to Ubuntu with no modifications needed, because I coded it with that platform in mind. In particular, I am running the Canonical HVM Oneiric image on an an Amazon EC2, cluster compute 4x large instance. Those machines feature 2 Intel Xeon X5570, quad-core CPUs.
Unfortunately, my program does not accomplish multithreading on the EC2 machine. Running more than 1 thread actually slows the computing marginally for each additional thread. Running top while my program is running shows that when more than 1 thread is initialized, the system% of CPU consumption is roughly proportional to the number of threads. With only 1 thread, %sy is ~0.1. In either case user% never goes above ~9%.
The following are the threading-relevant sections of my code
const int NUM_THREADS = N; //where changing N is how I set the # of threads
void Threading::Setup_Threading()
{
sem_unlink("producer_gate");
sem_unlink("consumer_gate");
producer_gate = sem_open("producer_gate", O_CREAT, 0700, 0);
consumer_gate = sem_open("consumer_gate", O_CREAT, 0700, 0);
completed = 0;
queued = 0;
pthread_attr_init (&attr);
pthread_attr_setdetachstate (&attr, PTHREAD_CREATE_DETACHED);
}
void Threading::Init_Threads(vector <NetClass> * p_Pop)
{
thread_list.assign(NUM_THREADS, pthread_t());
for(int q=0; q<NUM_THREADS; q++)
pthread_create(&thread_list[q], &attr, Consumer, (void*) p_Pop );
}
void* Consumer(void* argument)
{
std::vector <NetClass>* p_v_Pop = (std::vector <NetClass>*) argument ;
while(1)
{
sem_wait(consumer_gate);
pthread_mutex_lock (&access_queued);
int index = queued;
queued--;
pthread_mutex_unlock (&access_queued);
Run_Gen( (*p_v_Pop)[index-1] );
completed--;
if(!completed)
sem_post(producer_gate);
}
}
main()
{
...
t1 = time(NULL);
threads.Init_Threads(p_Pop_m);
for(int w = 0; w < MONTC_NUM_TRIALS ; w++)
{
queued = MONTC_POP;
completed = MONTC_POP;
for(int q = MONTC_POP-1 ; q > -1; q--)
sem_post(consumer_gate);
sem_wait(producer_gate);
}
threads.Close_Threads();
t2 = time(NULL);
cout << difftime(t2, t1);
...
}
Ok, just guess. There is simple way to transform your parallel code to consecutive. For example:
thread_func:
while (1) {
pthread_mutex_lock(m1);
//do something
pthread_mutex_unlock(m1);
...
pthread_mutex_lock(mN);
pthread_mutex_unlock(mN);
If you run such code in several thread, you will not see any speedup, because of mutex usage. Code will work as consecutive, not as parallel. Only one thread will work at any moment.
The bad thing, that you can not used any mutex in your program explicity, but still have such situation. For example, call of "malloc" may cause usage of mutex some where in "C" runtime, call of "write" may cause usage of mutex somewhere in Linux kernel. Even call of gettimeofday may cause mutex lock/unlock (and they cause, if tell about Linux/glibc).
You may have only one mutex, but spend under it a lot of time, and this may cause such behaviour.
And because of mutex may be used somewhere in kernel and C/C++ runtime, you can see different behaviour with different OSes.

Negative Speedup on Multithreading my Program

On my laptop with Intel Pentium dual-core processor T2370 (Acer Extensa) I ran a simple multithreading speedup test. I am using Linux. The code is pasted below. While I was expecting a speedup of 2-3 times, I was surprised to see a slowdown by a factor of 2. I tried the same with gcc optimization levels -O0 ... -O3, but everytime I got the same result. I am using pthreads. I also tried the same with only two threads (instead of 3 threads in the code), but the performance was similar.
What could be the reason? The faster version took reasonably long - about 20 secs - so it seems is not an issue of startup overhead.
NOTE: This code is a lot buggy (indeed it does not make much sense as the output of serial and parallel versions would be different). The intention was just to "get" a speedup comparison for the same number of instructions.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <time.h>
#include <unistd.h>
#include <pthread.h>
class Thread{
private:
pthread_t thread;
static void *thread_func(void *d){((Thread *)d)->run();}
public:
Thread(){}
virtual ~Thread(){}
virtual void run(){}
int start(){return pthread_create(&thread, NULL, Thread::thread_func, (void*)this);}
int wait(){return pthread_join(thread, NULL);}
};
#include <iostream>
const int ARR_SIZE = 100000000;
const int N = 20;
int arr[ARR_SIZE];
int main(void)
{
class Thread_a:public Thread{
public:
Thread_a(int* a): arr_(a) {}
void run()
{
for(int n = 0; n<N; n++)
for(int i=0; i<ARR_SIZE/3; i++){ arr_[i] += arr_[i-1];}
}
private:
int* arr_;
};
class Thread_b:public Thread{
public:
Thread_b(int* a): arr_(a) {}
void run()
{
for(int n = 0; n<N; n++)
for(int i=ARR_SIZE/3; i<2*ARR_SIZE/3; i++){ arr_[i] += arr_[i-1];}
}
private:
int* arr_;
};
class Thread_c:public Thread{
public:
Thread_c(int* a): arr_(a) {}
void run()
{
for(int n = 0; n<N; n++)
for(int i=2*ARR_SIZE/3; i<ARR_SIZE; i++){ arr_[i] += arr_[i-1];}
}
private:
int* arr_;
};
{
Thread *a=new Thread_a(arr);
Thread *b=new Thread_b(arr);
Thread *c=new Thread_c(arr);
clock_t start = clock();
if (a->start() != 0) {
return 1;
}
if (b->start() != 0) {
return 1;
}
if (c->start() != 0) {
return 1;
}
if (a->wait() != 0) {
return 1;
}
if (b->wait() != 0) {
return 1;
}
if (c->wait() != 0) {
return 1;
}
clock_t end = clock();
double duration = (double)(end - start) / CLOCKS_PER_SEC;
std::cout << duration << "seconds\n";
delete a;
delete b;
}
{
clock_t start = clock();
for(int n = 0; n<N; n++)
for(int i=0; i<ARR_SIZE; i++){ arr[i] += arr[i-1];}
clock_t end = clock();
double duration = (double)(end - start) / CLOCKS_PER_SEC;
std::cout << "serial: " << duration << "seconds\n";
}
return 0;
}
See also: What can make a program run slower when using more threads?
The times you are reporting are measured using the clock function:
The clock() function returns an approximation of processor time used by the program.
$ time bin/amit_kumar_threads.cpp
6.62seconds
serial: 2.7seconds
real 0m5.247s
user 0m9.025s
sys 0m0.304s
The real time will be less for multiprocessor tasks, but the processor time will typically be greater.
When you use multiple threads, the work may be done by more than one processor, but the amount of work is the same, and in addition there may be some overhead such as contention for limited resources. clock() measures the total processor time, which will be the work + any contention overhead. So it should never be less than the processor time for doing the work in a single thread.
It's a little hard to tell from the question whether you knew this, and were surprised that the value returned by clock() was twice that for a single thread rather than being only a little more, or you were expecting it to be less.
Using clock_gettime() instead (you'll need the realtime library librt, g++ -lrt etc.) gives:
$ time bin/amit_kumar_threads.cpp
2.524 seconds
serial: 2.761 seconds
real 0m5.326s
user 0m9.057s
sys 0m0.344s
which still is less of a speed-up than one might hope for, but at least the numbers make some sense.
100000000*20/2.5s = 800Hz, the bus frequency is 1600 MHz, so I suspect with a read and a write for each iteration (assuming some caching), you're memory bandwidth limited as tstenner suggests, and the clock() value shows that most of the time some of your processors are waiting for data. (does anyone know whether clock() time includes such stalls?)
The only thing your thread does is adding some elements, so your application should be IO-bound. When you add an extra thread, you have 2 CPUs sharing the memory bus, so it won't go faster, instead, you'll have cache misses etc.
I believe that your algorithm essentially makes your cache memory useless.
Probably what you are seeing is the effect of (non)locality of reference between the three threads. Essentially because each thread is operating on a different section of data that is widely separated from the others you are causing cache misses as the data section for one thread replaces that for another thread in your cache. If your program was constructed so that the threads operated on sections of data that were smaller (so that they could all be kept in memory) or closer together (so that all threads could use the same in-cache pages), you'd see a performance boost. As it is I suspect that your slow down is because a lot of memory references are having to be satisifed from main memory instead of from your cache.
Not related to your threading issues, but there is a bounds error in your code.
You have:
for(int i=0; i<ARR_SIZE; i++){ arr[i] += arr[i-1];}
When i is zero you will be doing
arr[0] += arr[-1];
Also see herb's article on how multi cpu and cache lines interference in multithreaded code specially the section `All Sharing Is Bad -- Even of "Unshared" Objects...'
As others have pointed out, threads don't necessarily provide improvements to speed. In this particular example, the amount of time spent in each thread is significantly less than the amount of time required to perform context switches and synchronization.
tstenner has got it mostly right.
This is mainly a benchmark of your OS's "allocate and map a new page" algorithm. That array allocation allocates 800MB of virtual memory; the OS won't actually allocate real physical memory until it's needed. "Allocate and map a new page" is usually protected by a mutex, so more cores won't help.
Your benchmark also stresses the memory bus (minimum 800MB transferred; on OSs that zero memory just before they give it to you, the worst case is 800MB * 7 transfers). Adding more cores isn't really going to help if the bottleneck is the memory bus.
You have 3 threads that are trampling all over the same memory. The cache lines are being read and written to by different threads, so will be ping-ponging between the L1 caches on the two CPU cores. (A cache line that is to be written to can only be in one L1 cache, and that must be the L1 cache that is attached to the CPU code that's doing the write). This is not very efficient. The CPU cores are probably spending most of their time waiting for the cache line to be transferred, which is why this is slower with threads than if you single-threaded it.
Incidentally, the code is also buggy because the same array is read & written from different CPUs without locking. Proper locking would have an effect on performance.
Threads take you to the promised land of speed boosts(TM) when you have a proper vector implementation. Which means that you need to have:
a proper parallelization of your algorithm
a compiler that knows and can spread your algorithm out on the hardware as a parallel procedure
hardware support for parallelization
It is difficult to come up with the first. You need to be able to have redundancy and make sure that it's not eating in your performance, proper merging of data for processing the next batch of data and so on ...
But this is then only a theoretical standpoint.
Running multiple threads doesn't give you much when you have only one processor and a bad algorithm. Remember -- there is only one processor, so your threads have to wait for a time slice and essentially you are doing sequential processing.