Consider this piece of code:
class A {
void methodX() {
// snip (1 liner function)
}
}
class B {
void methodX() {
// same -code
}
}
Now other way i can go is, I have a class(AppManager) most of whose members are static, (from legacy code, don't suggest me singleton ;))
class AppManager {
public:
static void methodX(){
// same-code
}
}
Which one should be preferred?
As both are inlined, there shouldn't be a runtime difference, right?
Which form is more cleaner?
Now first of all, this is a concern so minuscule that you would never have to worry about it unless the functions are called thousands of times per frame (and you're doing something where "frames" matter).
Second, IF they are inlined, the code will be (hopefully) optimized so much that there is no sign whatsoever of the function being non-static. It would be identical.
Even if they were not inlined, the difference would be minor. The ABI would put the "this" pointer into a register (or the stack), which it wouldn't do in a static function, but again, the net result would be almost not measurable.
Bottom line - write your code in the cleanest possible way. Performance is not a concern at this point.
In my opinion Inline way would be faster.
because inline functions are replaced in code in compile time and therefor there is no need to save registers, make a function call and then return again. but when you call a static function it's just a function call and it has much overhead than the inline one.
I think that this is most common optimisation problem. At first level when you writing a code you try every single trick that would help compiler so if compiler can not optimise code well, you already have. This is wrong. What are you looking for in first stage of optimisation during writing code is just clean and understandable code, design and structure. That will make by far better code, that "optimised" by hand.
Rule is:
If you do not have resources to benchmark code, rewrite it and spend lot of time for optimisation than you do not need optimised code. In most cases it is hard to gain any speed boost whit any kind optimisation, if you structured your code well.
Related
I'm implementing a helper class which has a number of useful functions which will be used in a large number of classes. However, a few of them are not designed to be called from within certain sections of code (from interrupt functions, this is an embedded project).
However, for users of this class the reasons why some functions are allowed while others are prohibited from being called from interrupt functions might not be immediately obvious, and in many cases the prohibited functions might work but can cause very subtle and hard to find bugs later on.
The best solution for me would be to cause a compiler error if the offending function is called from a code section it shouldn't be called from.
I've also considered a few non-technical solutions, but a technical one would be preferred.
Indicate it in the documentation with a warning. Might be easily missed, especially when the function seems obvious, like read_byte(), why would anyone study the documentation whether the function is reentrant or not?
Indicate it in the function's name. Ugly. Who likes function names like read_byte_DO_NOT_CALL_FROM_INTERRUPT() ?
Have a global variable in a common header, included in each and every file, which is set to true at the beginning of each interrupt, set to false at the end, and the offending functions check it at their beginning, and exit if it's set. Problem: interrupts might interrupt each other. Also, it doesn't cause compile-time warnings or errors.
Similar to #3, have a global handler with a stack, so that nested interrupts can be handled. Still has the problem of only working at runtime and it also adds a lot of overhead. Interrupts should not waste more than a clock cycle or two for this feature, if at all.
Abusing the preprocessor. Unfortunately, the naive way of a #define at the beginning and an #undef at the end of each interrupt, with an #ifdef at the beginning of the offending function doesn't work, because the preprocessor doesn't care about scope.
As interrupts are always classless functions, I could make the offending functions protected, and declare them as friends in all classes which use them. This way, it would be impossible to use them directly from within interrupts. As main() is classless, I'll have to place most of it into a class method. I don't like this too much, as it can become needlessly complicated, and the error it generates is not obvious (so users of this function might encapsulate them to "solve" the problem, without realizing what the real problem was). A compiler or linker error message like "ERROR: function_name() is not to be used from within an interrupt" would be much more preferable.
Checking the interrupt registers within the function has several issues. In a large microcontroller there are a lot of registers to check. Also, there is a very small but dangerous chance of a false positive when an interrupt flag is being set exactly one clock cycle before, so my function would fail because it thinks it was called from an interrupt, while the interrupt would be called in the next cycle. Also, in nested interrupts, the interrupt flags are cleared, causing a false negative. And finally, this is yet another runtime solution.
I did play with some very basic template metaprogramming a while ago, but I'm not that experienced with it to find a very simple and elegant solution. I would rather try other ways before committing myself to try to implement a template metaprogramming bloatware.
A solution working with only features available in C would also be acceptable, even preferable.
Some comments below. As a warning, they won't be fun reading, but I won't do you a service by not pointing out what's wrong here.
If you are calling external functions from inside an ISR, no amount of documentation or coding will help you. Since in most cases, it is bad practice to do so. The programmer must know what they are doing, or no amount of documentation or coding mechanisms will save the program.
Programmers do not design library functions specifically for the purpose of getting called from inside an ISR. Rather, programmers design ISR:s with all the special restrictions that come with an ISR in mind: make sure interrupt flags are cleared correctly, keep the code short, do not call external functions, do not block the MCU longer than necessary, consider re-entrancy, consider dangerous compiler optimizations (use volatile). A person who does not know this is not competent enough to write ISRs.
If you actually have a function int read_byte(int address) then this suggests that the program design is bad to begin with. This function could do one of two things:
Either it can read a byte some some peripheral hardware, in which case the function name is very bad and should be changed.
Or it could read any generic byte from an address, in which case the function is 100% useless "bloatware". You can safely assume that a somewhat competent C programmer can read a byte from a memory address without some bloatware holding their hand.
In either case, int is not a byte. It is a word of 16 or 32 bits. The function should be returning uint8_t. Similarly, if the parameter passed is used to descibe a memory-mapped address of an MCU, it should either have type void*, uint8_t* or uintptr_t. Everything else is wrong.
Notably, if you are using int rather than stdint.h for embedded systems programming, then this whole discussion is the least of your problems, as you haven't even gotten the fundamental basics right. Your programs will be filled to the brim with undefined behavior and implicit promotion bugs.
Overall, all the solutions you suggest are simply not acceptable. The root of the problem here appears to be the program design. Deal with that instead of inventing ways to defend the broken design with horrible meta programming.
I would suggest option 8 & 9.
Peer reviews & assertions.
You state in the comments that your interrupt functions are short. If that's really the case, then reviewing them will be trivial. Adding comments in the header will make it so that anyone can see what's going on. On adding an assert, while you make it viable that debug builds will return the wrong result in error, it will also ensure that you you will catch any calls; and give you a fighting chance during testing to catch the problem.
Ultimately, the macro processing just won't work since the best you can do is catch if a header has been included, but if the callstack goes via another wrapper (that doesn't have comments) then you just can't catch that.
Alternatively you could make your helper a template, but then that would mean every wrapper around your helper would also have to be a template so that can know if you're in an interrupt routine... which will ultimately be your entire code base.
if you have one file for all interrupt routine then this might be helpful:
define one macro in class header ,say FORBID_INTERRUPT_ROUTINE_ACCESS.
and in interrupt handler file check for that macro definition :
#ifdef FORBID_INTERRUPT_ROUTINE_ACCESS
#error : cannot access function from interrupt handlers.
#endif
if someone add header file for that class to use that class in interrupt handler then it will throw an error.
Note : you have to build target by specifying that warnings will be considered as error.
Here is the C++ template functions suggestion.
I don't think this is metaprogramming or bloatware.
First make 2 classes which will define the context which the user will be using the functions in:
class In_Interrupt_Handler;
class In_Non_Interrupt_Handler;
If You will have some common implementations between the 2 contexts, a Base class can be added:
class Handy_Base
{
protected:
static int Handy_protected() { return 0; }
public:
static int Handy_public() { return 0; }
};
The primary template definition, without any implementations. The implemenations will be provided by the specialization classes:
template< class Is_Interrupt_Handler >
class Handy_functions;
And the specializations.
// Functions can be used when inside an interrupt handler
template<>
struct Handy_functions< In_Interrupt_Handler >
: Handy_Base
{
static int Handy1() { return 1; }
static int Handy2() { return 2; }
};
// Functions can be used when inside any function
template<>
struct Handy_functions< In_Non_Interrupt_Handler >
: Handy_Base
{
static int Handy1() { return 4; }
static int Handy2() { return 8; }
};
In this way if the user of the API wants to access the functions, the only way is by specifing what type of functions are needed.
Example of usage:
int main()
{
using IH_funcs = Handy_functions<In_Interrupt_Handler>;
std::cout << IH_funcs::Handy1() << '\n';
std::cout << IH_funcs::Handy2() << '\n';
using Non_IH_funcs = Handy_functions<In_Non_Interrupt_Handler>;
std::cout << Non_IH_funcs::Handy1() << '\n';
std::cout << Non_IH_funcs::Handy2() << '\n';
}
In the end I think the problem boils down to the developer using Your framework. And How much Your framework requires the devloper to boilerplate.
The above does not stop the developer calling the Non Interrupt Handler functions from inside an Interrupt Handler.
I think that type of analysis would require some type of static analysis checking system.
Is there a way to tell g++ more about a type, function, or specific variable (other than attributes) that I might know is safe to preform.
Example:
TurnLedOn();
TurnLedOn();
Only the first function actually turns the LED on the second function does not actually do anything....so would it be possible to tell g++ more about the function so that it gets rid of a second call if it knows that the LED is on (because it knows that a corresponding TurnLedOff() function has not been called)....
The reason I do not want to use g++ attributes is because I want to arbitrarily define optimizations, which is really not possible with attributes (and I believe the optimization I am trying here is not actually possible to begin with using attributes)
These are optimisations you need to code. Such as:
class LedSwitch {
bool isOn{false};
public:
inline void turnLedOn(){
if (!isOn) {
isOn = true;
// ...
}
}
// ...
}
// ...
If the code inlines then the compiler might then notice the bool negated in the second hardcoded sequential call, but why do that in the first place?
Maybe you should revisit design if things like this are slowing down your code.
One possibility is to make it so that the second TurnLedOn call does nothing, and make it inline and declare it in a header file so the compiler can see the definition in any source file:
extern bool isLedOn; // defined somewhere else
inline void TurnLedOn()
{
if(!isLedOn)
{
ActuallyTurnLedOn();
isLedOn = true;
}
}
Then the compiler might be able to figure out by itself that calling TurnLedOn twice does nothing useful. Of course, as with any optimization, you have no guarantees.
Contrary to your thinking, the answer by #immibis is what you were expecting.
This way to describe the complex behavior of the function TurnLedOn (i.e. needn't be called twice in a row unless unlocked by some other action) is indeed how you tell the compiler to perform this "optimization".
Could you imagine other annotations such as
#pragma call_once_toggle_pair(TurnLEDOn, TurnLEDOff)
with innumerable variants describing all your vagaries ?
The C++ language has enough provisions to let you express arbitrarily complex situations, please don't add yet a layer of complexity on top of that.
I wonder if there is some theory/tool available to replace a piece of code that contains function calls, into code where all function call has been replaced by their respective code.
like
main()
{
fun();
}
fun()
{
int i;
fun2();
}
fun2()
{
int j;
}
into
main()
{
int i;
int j;
}
I know there is a lot to take care of, like local variable names, recursive calls, external function calls etc etc. .. ..
I also know that it may not be at all useful, but still does something like this exist? even in theory?
should I call it advance per-processor unit :)
The compiler can usually tell when it's a good idea to do this, and already automatically does inlining whenever needed. You can also suggest that a function should be inlined using the inline keyword before a function (note that it still doesn't actually force it, and the compiler might decide to avoid the inlining).It's generally not such a good idea to do this manually, as modern compilers tend to figure out the best possible inlinings on their own. This article explains inline functions really well, I found it very helpful
Edit 1:
There are several reasons why one might want to do that inlining you speak of. If you feel like your code is divided into many different functions reducing its clarity and making it overly verbose, you could try a refactoring tool, such as the one provided by the VAssist X Visual Studio plugin. Though this plugin doesn't really do what you suggest (I can't think of a tool that does), it can help move functions/ methods around with ease, allowing you to clean up your code.
Splitting up functions, into smaller sub function into the code, can effect efficiency of the program?
while reducing cyclomatic complexity of functions i have break down function into smaller parts, and has used helper function and inline functions for it.
void functionParent(arguments)
{
intialCheckFunction(arguments);
functionOne();
functionTwo();
functionThree();
functionFour();
return STATUS;
}
void functionOne()
{
/*follows unary Principle.*/
}
My concern is regarding the stack pointer, does a frequent switch of SP reduce efficiency of program drastically or it negligible.
The above functionOne,Two,.. are having UNARY Logic in them.
Kindenter code herely reply in both context, C as well C++
You should split off logic into its own function whenever you think that it would aid readability: the cost of a function call itself is negligible.
Although it is generally true that calling a function consumes some space and CPU cycles, you shouldn't be worrying about it at all: the instructions involved are optimized beyond belief, and the compiler can inline your code when it sees fit.
EDIT (in response to comment by Potatoswatter)
One thing you need to be careful is passing parameters, especially in C++, where user code can participate in the process of copying parameters being passed to the function. Passing large structs by value can take more than a few cycles in C, too, so you should pass them by reference or by pointer whenever you can.
Generally I prefer to break up function into smaller functions so that we can reuse it in other places, It is often required during re-factoring. If you are so concerned about the switch and if the function is really small you can mark it as inline. However i don't think having too many functions make such a huge difference in performance of your program.
If you are using C++ you can declare inline functions.
Then no overhead will happen due function call, once code will be replaced in line.
inline bool check(args){
if( some_condiction(args) ){
return true;
}
}
inline void functionOne(){...}
inline void functionTwo(){...}
inline void functionThree(){...}
inline void functionFour(){...}
int functionParent(arguments){
if(check(arguments)==false)
return FAIL;
functionOne();
functionTwo();
functionThree();
functionFour();
return STATUS;
}
The current processors architecture execute more than one instruction per time, lets say 5. At a given moment they may be in intermediate stages of completion, lets say 90%,80%,70%,60%,50%. If the first instruction is a function call, all effort made to evaluate the next 4 instructions will be in vain, which will greatly reduce the program execution speed.
Its not needed to care too much about these details, unless you are creating a critical application. Usually compiler is smart enough to inline the needed functions when using optimization flags.
I have programmed in both Java and C, and now I am trying to get my hands dirty with C++.
Given this code:
class Booth {
private :
int tickets_sold;
public :
int get_tickets_sold();
void set_tickets_sold();
};
In Java, wherever I needed the value of tickets_sold, I would call the getter repeatedly.
For example:
if (obj.get_tickets_sold() > 50 && obj.get_tickets_sold() < 75){
//do something
}
In C I would just get the value of the particular variable in the structure:
if( obj_t->tickets_sold > 50 && obj_t->tickets_sold < 75){
//do something
}
So while using structures in C, I save on the two calls that I would otherwise make in Java, the two getters that is, I am not even sure if those are actual calls or Java somehow inlines those calls.
My point is if I use the same technique that I used in Java in C++ as well, will those two calls to getter member functions cost me, or will the compiler somehow know to inline the code? (thus reducing the overhead of function call altogether?)
Alternatively, am I better off using:
int num_tickets = 0;
if ( (num_tickets = obj.get_ticket_sold()) > 50 && num_tickets < 75){
//do something
}
I want to write tight code and avoid unnecessary function calls, I would care about this in Java, because, well, we all know why. But, I want my code to be readable and to use the private and public keywords to correctly reflect what is to be done.
Unless your program is too slow, it doesn't really matter. In 99.9999% of code, the overhead of a function call is insignificant. Write the clearest, easiest to maintain, easiest to understand code that you can and only start tweaking for performance after you know where your performance hot spots are, if you have any at all.
That said, modern C++ compilers (and some linkers) can and will inline functions, especially simple functions like this one.
If you're just learning the language, you really shouldn't worry about this. Consider it fast enough until proven otherwise. That said, there are a lot of misleading or incomplete answers here, so for the record I'll flesh out a few of the subtler implications. Consider your class:
class Booth
{
public:
int get_tickets_sold();
void set_tickets_sold();
private:
int tickets_sold;
};
The implementation (known as a definition) of the get and set functions is not yet specified. If you'd specified function bodies inside the class declaration then the compiler would consider you to have implicitly requested they be inlined (but may ignore that if they're excessively large). If you specify them later using the inline keyword, that has exactly the safe effect. Summarily...
class Booth
{
public:
int get_tickets_sold() { return tickets_sold; }
...
...and...
class Booth
{
public:
int get_tickets_sold();
...
};
inline int Booth::get_tickets_sold() { return tickets_sold; }
...are equivalent (at least in terms of what the Standard encourages us to expect, but individual compiler heuristics may vary - inlining is a request that the compiler's free to ignore).
If the function bodies are specified later without the inline keyword, then the compiler is under no obligation to inline them, but may still choose to do so. It's much more likely to do so if they appear in the same translation unit (i.e. in the .cc/.cpp/.c++/etc. "implementation" file you're compiling or some header directly or indirectly included by it). If the implementation is only available at link time then the functions may not be inlined at all, but it depends on the way your particular compiler and linker interact and cooperate. It is not simply a matter of enabling optimisation and expecting magic. To prove this, consider the following code:
// inline.h:
void f();
// inline.cc:
#include <cstdio>
void f() { printf("f()\n"); }
// inline_app.cc:
#include "inline.h"
int main() { f(); }
Building this:
g++ -O4 -c inline.cc
g++ -O4 -o inline_app inline_app.cc inline.o
Investigating the inlining:
$ gdb inline_app
...
(gdb) break main
Breakpoint 1 at 0x80483f3
(gdb) break f
Breakpoint 2 at 0x8048416
(gdb) run
Starting program: /home/delroton/dev/inline_app
Breakpoint 1, 0x080483f3 in main ()
(gdb) next
Single stepping until exit from function main,
which has no line number information.
Breakpoint 2, 0x08048416 in f ()
(gdb) step
Single stepping until exit from function _Z1fv,
which has no line number information.
f()
0x080483fb in main ()
(gdb)
Notice the execution went from 0x080483f3 in main() to 0x08048416 in f() then back to 0x080483fb in main()... clearly not inlined. This illustrates that inlining can't be expected just because a function's implementation is trivial.
Notice that this example is with static linking of object files. Clearly, if you use library files you may actually want to avoid inlining of the functions specifically so that you can update the library without having to recompile the client code. It's even more useful for shared libraries where the linking is done implicitly at load time anyway.
Very often, classes providing trivial functions use the two forms of expected-inlined function definitions (i.e. inside class or with inline keyword) if those functions can be expected to be called inside any performance-critical loops, but the countering consideration is that by inlining a function you force client code to be recompiled (relatively slow, possibly no automated trigger) and relinked (fast, for shared libraries happens on next execution), rather than just relinked, in order to pick up changes to the function implementation.
These kind of considerations are annoying, but deliberate management of these tradeoffs is what allows enterprise use of C and C++ to scale to tens and hundreds of millions of lines and thousands of individual projects, all sharing various libraries over decades.
One other small detail: as a ballpark figure, an out-of-line get/set function is typically about an order of magnitude (10x) slower than the equivalent inlined code. That will obviously vary with CPU, compiler, optimisation level, variable type, cache hits/misses etc..
No, repetitive calls to member functions will not hurt.
If it's just a getter function, it will almost certainly be inlined by the C++ compiler (at least with release/optimized builds) and the Java Virtual Machine may "figure out" that a certain function is being called frequently and optimize for that. So there's pretty much no performance penalty for using functions in general.
You should always code for readability first. Of course, that's not to say that you should completely ignore performance outright, but if performance is unacceptable then you can always profile your code and see where the slowest parts are.
Also, by restricting access to the tickets_sold variable behind getter functions, you can pretty much guarantee that the only code that can modify the tickets_sold variable to member functions of Booth. This allows you to enforce invariants in program behavior.
For example, tickets_sold is obviously not going to be a negative value. That is an invariant of the structure. You can enforce that invariant by making tickets_sold private and making sure your member functions do not violate that invariant. The Booth class makes tickets_sold available as a "read-only data member" via a getter function to everyone else and still preserves the invariant.
Making it a public variable means that anybody can go and trample over the data in tickets_sold, which basically completely destroys your ability to enforce any invariants on tickets_sold. Which makes it possible for someone to write a negative number into tickets_sold, which is of course nonsensical.
The compiler is very likely to inline function calls like this.
class Booth {
public:
int get_tickets_sold() const { return tickets_sold; }
private:
int tickets_sold;
};
Your compiler should inline get_tickets_sold, I would be very surprised if it didn't. If not, you either need to use a new compiler or turn on optimizations.
Any compiler worth its salt will easily optimize the getters into direct member access. The only times that won't happen are when you have optimization explicitly disabled (e.g. for a debug build) or if you're using a brain-dead compiler (in which case, you should seriously consider ditching it for a real compiler).
The compiler will very likely do the work for you, but in general, for things like this I would approach it more from the C perspective rather than the Java perspective unless you want to make the member access a const reference. However, when dealing with integers, there's usually little value in using a const reference over a copy (at least in 32 bit environments since both are 4 bytes), so your example isn't really a good one here... Perhaps this may illustrate why you would use a getter/setter in C++:
class StringHolder
{
public:
const std::string& get_string() { return my_string; }
void set_string(const std::string& val) { if(!val.empty()) { my_string = val; } }
private
std::string my_string;
}
That prevents modification except through the setter which would then allow you to perform extra logic. However, in a simple class such as this, the value of this model is nil, you've just made the coder who is calling it type more and haven't really added any value. For such a class, I wouldn't have a getter/setter model.