Consider the following statements -
cout<<"\U222B";
int a='A';
cout<<a;
The first statement prints an integration sign (the character equivalent to the Unicode code point) whereas the second cout statement prints the ASCII value 65.
So I want to ask two things -
1) If my compiler supports Unicode character set then why it is implementing the ASCII character set and showing the ascii values of the characters?
2) With reference to this question - what is the difference in defining the 'byte' in terms of computer memory and in terms of C++?
Does my compiler implement 16-bit or 32-bit byte? If yes, then why do the value of CHAR_BIT is set to 8?
In answer to your first question, the bottom 128 code points of Unicode are ASCII. There's no real distinction between the two.
The reason you're seeing 65 is because the thing you're outputting (a) is an int rather than a char (it may have started as a char but, by putting it into a, you modified how it would be treated in future).
For your second question, a byte is a char, at least as far as the ISO C and C++ standards are concerned. If CHAR_BIT is defined as 8, that's how wide your char type is.
However, you should keep in mind the difference between Unicode code points and Unicode representations (such as UTF-8). Having CHAR_BIT == 8 will still allow Unicode to work if UTF-8 representation is used.
My advice would be to capture the output of you program with a hex dump utility, you may well find the Unicode character is coming out as e2 88 ab, which is the UTF-8 representation of U+222B. It will then be interpreted by something outside of the program (eg, the terminal program) to render the correct glyph(s):
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() { cout << "\u222B\n"; }
Running that program above shows what's being output:
pax> g++ -o testprog testprog.cpp ; ./testprog
∫
pax> ./testprog | hexdump
0000000 e2 88 ab 0a
You could confirm that by generating the same UTF-8 byte sequence in a different way:
pax> printf "\xe2\x88\xab\n"
∫
There are several different questions/issues here:
As paxdiablo pointed out, you're seeing "65" because you're outputting "a" (value 'A' = ASCII 65) as an "int".
Yes, gcc supports Unicode source files: --finput-charset=OPTION
The final issue is whether the C++ compiler treats your "strings" as 8-bit ASCII or n-bit Unicode.
C++11 added explicit support for Unicode strings and string literals, encoded as UTF-8, UTF-16 big endian, UTF-16 little endian, UTF-32 big endian and UTF-32 little endian:
How well is Unicode supported in C++11?
PS:
As far as language support for Unicode:
Java was designed from the ground up for Unicode.
Unfortunately, at the time that meant only UTF-16. Java 5 supported nicode 6.0, Java 7 Unicode 6.0 and the current Java 8 supports Unicode 6.2.
.Net is newer. C#, VB.Net and C++/CLI all fully support Unicode 4.0.
Newer versions of .Net support newer versions of Unicode. For example, .Net 4.0 supports Unicode 5.1](What version of Unicode is supported by which .NET platform and on which version of Windows in regards to character classes?).
Python3 also supports Unicode 4.0: http://www.diveintopython3.net/strings.html
For of all, sorry for my English if it has mistakes.
A C++ byte is any defined amount of bits large enough to transport every character of a set specified by the standard. This required set of characters is a subset of ASCII, and that previously defined "amount of bits" must be the memory unit for chars, the tiniest memory atom of C++. Every other type must be a multiple of sizeof(char) (any C++ value is a bunch of chars continously stored on memory).
So, sizeof(char) must be 1 by definition, because is the memory measurement unit of C++. If that 1 means 1 physical byte or not is an implementation issue, but universally accepted as 1 byte.
What I don't understand is what do you mean with 16-bit or 32-bit byte.
Other related question is about the encoding your compiled applies to your source texts, literal strings included. A compiler, if I'm not wrong, normalizes each translation unit (source code file) to an encoding of its choice to handle the file.
I don't really know what happens under the hood, but perhaps you have read something somewhere about source file/internal encoding, and 16 bits/32bits encodings and all the mess is blended on your head. I'm still confused either though.
Related
Why in C++ (MSVS), datatypes with all caps are defined (and most of them are same)?
These are exactly the same. Why all caps versions are defined?
double and typedef double DOUBLE
char and typedef char CHAR
bool and BOOL (typedef int BOOL), here both all small and all caps represent Boolean states, why int is used in the latter?
What extra ability was gained through such additional datatypes?
The ALLCAPS typedefs started in the very first days of Windows programming (1.0 and before). Back then, for example, there was no such thing as a bool type. The Windows APIs and headers were defined for old-school C. C++ didn't even exist back when they were being developed.
So to help document the APIs better, compiler macros like BOOL were introduced. Even though BOOL and INT were both macros for the same underlying type (int), this let you look at a function's type signature to see whether an argument or return value was intended as a boolean value (defined as "0 for false, any nonzero value for true") or an arbitrary integer.
As another example, consider LPCSTR. In 16-bit Windows, there were two kinds of pointers: near pointers were 16-bit pointers, and far pointers used both a 16-bit "segment" value and a 16-bit offset into that segment. The actual memory address was calculated in the hardware as ( segment << 4 ) + offset.
There were macros or typedefs for each of these kinds of pointers. NPSTR was a near pointer to a character string, and LPSTR was a far pointer to a character string. If it was a const string, then a C would get added in: NPCSTR or LPCSTR.
You could compile your code in either "small" model (using near pointers by default) or "large" model (using far pointers by default). The various NPxxx and LPxxx "types" would explicitly specify the pointer size, but you could also omit the L or N and just use PSTR or PCSTR to declare a writable or const pointer that matched your current compilation mode.
Most Windows API functions used far pointers, so you would generally see LPxxx pointers there.
BOOL vs. INT was not the only case where two names were synonyms for the same underlying type. Consider a case where you had a pointer to a single character, not a zero-terminated string of characters. There was a name for that too. You would use PCH for a pointer to a character to distinguish it from PSTR which pointed to a zero-terminated string.
Even though the underlying pointer type was exactly the same, this helped document the intent of your code. Of course there were all the same variations: PCCH for a pointer to a constant character, NPCH and LPCH for the explicit near and far, and of course NPCCH and LPCCH for near and far pointers to a constant character. Yes, the use of C in these names to represent both "const" and "char" was confusing!
When Windows moved to 32 bits with a "flat" memory model, there were no more near or far pointers, just flat 32-bit pointers for everything. But all of these type names were preserved to make it possible for old code to continue compiling, they were just all collapsed into one. So NPSTR, LPSTR, plain PSTR, and all the other variations mentioned above became synonyms for the same pointer type (with or without a const modifier).
Unicode came along around that same time, and most unfortunately, UTF-8 had not been invented yet. So Unicode support in Windows took the form of 8-bit characters for ANSI and 16-bit characters (UCS-2, later UTF-16) for Unicode. Yes, at that time, people thought 16-bit characters ought to be enough for anyone. How could there possibly be more than 65,536 different characters in the world?! (Famous last words...)
You can guess what happened here. Windows applications could be compiled in either ANSI or Unicode ("Wide character") mode, meaning that their default character pointers would be either 8-bit or 16-bit. You could use all of the type names above and they would match the mode your app was compiled in. Almost all Windows APIs that took string or character pointers came in both ANSI and Unicode versions, with an A or W suffix on the actual function name. For example, SetWindowText( HWND hwnd, LPCSTR lpString) became two functions: SetWindowTextA( HWND hwnd, LPCSTR lpString ) or SetWindowTextW( HWND hwnd, LPCWSTR lpString ). And SetWindowText itself became a macro defined as one or the other of those depending on whether you compiled for ANSI or Unicode.
Back then, you might have actually wanted to write your code so that it could be compiled either in ANSI or Unicode mode. So in addition to the macro-ized function name, there was also the question of whether to use "Howdy" or L"Howdy" for your window title. The TEXT() macro (more commonly known as _T() today) fixed this. You could write:
SetWindowText( hwnd, TEXT("Howdy") );
and it would compile to either of these depending on your compilation mode:
SetWindowTextA( hwnd, "Howdy" );
SetWindowTextW( hwnd, L"Howdy" );
Of course, most of this is moot today. Nearly everyone compiles their Windows apps in Unicode mode. That is the native mode on all modern versions of Windows, and the ...A versions of the API functions are shims/wrappers around the native Unicode ...W versions. By compiling for Unicode you avoid going through all those shim calls. But you still can compile your app in ANSI (or "multi-byte character set") mode if you want, so all of these macros still exist.
Microsoft decided to create macros or type aliases for all of these types, in the Windows code. It's possible that they were going for "consistency" with the all-caps WinAPI type aliases, like LPCSTR.
But what real benefit does it serve? None.
The case of BOOL is particularly headache-inducing. Although some old-school C had a convention of doing this (before actual bool entered the language), nowadays it really just confuses… especially when using WinAPI with C++.
This convention goes back more than 30 years to the early days of the Windows operating system.
Current practice in the '70s and early '80s was still to use all caps for programming in various assembly languages and the higher languages of the day, Fortran, Cobol... as well as command line interpreters and file system defaults. A habit probably rooted in the encoding of punch cards that goes back way further, to the dawn of the 20th century.
When I started programming in 1975, the card punch we used did not even support lowercase letters as you can see on the pictures, it did not even have a shift key.
MS/DOS was written in assembly language, as were most successful PC packages of the early '80s such as Lotus 1-2-3, MS Word, etc. C was invented at Bell Labs for the Unix system and took a long time to gain momentum in the PC world.
In the budding microprocessor world, there were literally 2 separate schools: the Intel little endian world with all caps assembly documentation and the big endian Motorola alternative, with small caps assembly, C and Unix operating systems and clones and other weird languages such as lisp.
Windows is the brainchild of the former and this proliferation of all caps types and modifiers did not seem ugly then, it looked consistent and reassuring. Microsoft tried various alternatives for the pointer modifiers: far, _far, __far, FAR and finally got rid of these completely but kept the original allcaps typedefs for compatibility purposes, leading to silly compromises such as 32-bit LONG even on 64-bit systems.
This answer is not unbiassed, but it was fun reviving these memories.
Only MS knows.
The only benefit I can think of is for some types (e.g. int) whose size is OS dependant (see the table here). This would allow to use 16 bits type on a 64 bits OS, with some more typedefs or #defines. The code would be easier to port to other OS versions.
Now, if this "portable" thing was true, then the rest of types would follow the same convention, even their sizes were the same in all machines.
Despite seing a lot of questions of the forum about unicode and string conversion (in C/C++) and Googling for hours on the topic, I still can't find a straight explanation to what seems to me like a very basic process. Here is what I want to do:
I have a string which potentially uses any characters of any possible language. Let's take cyrillic for example. So say I have:
std::string str = "сапоги";
I want to loop over each character making up that string and:
Know/print the character's Unicode value
Convert that Unicode value to a decimal value
I really Googled that for hours and couldn't find a straight answer. If someone could show me how this could be done, it would be great.
EDIT
So I managed to get that far:
#include <cstdlib>
#include <cstdio>
#include <iostream>
#include <locale>
#include <codecvt>
#include <iomanip>
// utility function for output
void hex_print(const std::string& s)
{
std::cout << std::hex << std::setfill('0');
for(unsigned char c : s)
std::cout << std::setw(2) << static_cast<int>(c) << ' ';
std::cout << std::dec << '\n';
}
int main()
{
std::wstring test = L"сапоги";
std::wstring_convert<std::codecvt_utf16<wchar_t>> conv1;
std::string u8str = conv1.to_bytes(test);
hex_print(u8str);
return 1;
}
Result:
04 41 04 30 04 3f 04 3e 04 33 04 38
Code
Which is correct (it maps to unicode). The problem is that I don't know whether I should use utf-8, 16 or something else (as pointed out by Chris in the comment). Is there a way I can find out about that? (whatever encoding it uses originally or whatever encoding needs to be used?)
EDIT 2
I thought I would address some of the comments with a second edit:
"Convert that Unicode value to a decimal value" Why?
I will explain why, but I also wanted to comment in a friendly way, that my problem was not 'why' but 'how';-). You can assume the OP has a reason for asking this question, yet of course, I understand people are curious as to why... so let me explain. The reason why I need all this is because I ultimately need to read the glyphs from a font file (TrueType OpenType doesn't matter). It happens that these files have a table called cmap that is some sort of associative array that maps the value of a character (in the form on a code point) to the index of the glyph in the font file. The code points in the table are not defined using the notation U+XXXX but directly in the decimal counterpart of that number (assuming the U+XXXX notation is the hexadecimal representation of a uint16 number [or U+XXXXXX if greater than uint16 but more on that later]). So in summary the letter г in Cyrillic ([gueu]) has code point value U+0433 which in decimal form is 1075. I need the value 1075 to do a lookup in the cmap table.
// utility function for output
void hex_print(const std::string& s)
{
std::cout << std::hex << std::setfill('0');
uint16_t i = 0, dec;
for(unsigned char c : s) {
std::cout << std::setw(2) << static_cast<int>(c) << ' ';
dec = (i++ % 2 == 0) ? (c << 8) : (dec | c);
printf("Unicode Value: U+%04x Decimal value of code point: %d\n", codePoint, codePoint);
}
}
std::string is encoding-agnostic. It essentially stores bytes. std::wstring is weird, though also not defined to hold any specific encoding. In Windows, wchar_t is used for UTF-16
Yes exactly, I think when you understand that "while" you think (at least I did) that strings were just storing "ASCII" characters (hold on here), this appears to be really wrong. In fact std::string as suggested by the comment only seems to store 'bytes'. Though clearly if you look at the bytes of the string english you get:
std::string eng = "english";
hex_print(eng);
65 6e 67 6c 69 73 68
and if you do the same thing with "сапоги you get:
std::string cyrillic = "сапоги";
hex_print(cyrillic );
d1 81 d0 b0 d0 bf d0 be d0 b3 d0 b8
What I'd really like to know/understand is how is this conversion implicitly done? Why UTF-8 encoding here rather the UTF-16 and is there a possibility of changing that that (or is that defined by my IDE or OS?)? Clearly when I copy paste the string сапоги in my text editor, it actually copies an array of 12 bytes already (these 12 bytes could be utf-8 or utf-16).
I think there is a confusion between Unicode and encoding. Codepoint (AFAIK) is just a character code. UTF 16 gives you the code, so you can say your 0x0441 is a с codepoint in case of Cyrillic small letter es. To my understanding UTF16 maps one-to-one with Unicode codepoint which have a range of 1M and something characters. However, other encoding techniques, for example UTF-8 does not maps directly to Unicode codepoint. So, I guess, you better stick to the UTF-16
Exactly! I found this comment very useful indeed. Because yes, there is confusion (and I was confused) with regards to the fact that the way you encode the Unicode code point value has nothing to do with the Unicode value itself, well sort of because in fact things can be misleading as I will show now. You can indeed encode the string сапоги using UTF8 and you will get:
d1 81 d0 b0 d0 bf d0 be d0 b3 d0 b8
So clearly it has nothing to do with the Unicode values of the glyphs indeed. Now if you encode the same string using UTF16 you get:
04 41 04 30 04 3f 04 3e 04 33 04 38
Where 04 and 41 are indeed the two bytes (in Hexadecimal form) of the letter с ([se] in cyrillic). In this case at least, there is a direct mapping between the unicode value and its uint16 representation. And this is why (per Wiki's explanation [source]):
Both UTF-16 and UCS-2 encode code points in this range as single 16-bit code units that are numerically equal to the corresponding code points.
But as someone suggested in the comment, some code points values go beyond what you can define with 2 bytes. For example:
1D307 𝌇 TETRAGRAM FOR FULL CIRCLE (Tai Xuan Jing Symbols)
which is what this comment was suggesting:
To my knowledge, UTF-16 doesn't cover all characters unless you use surrogate pairs. It was meant to originally, when 65k was more than enough, but that went out the window, making it an extremely awkward choice now
Though to be perfectly exact UTF-16 like UTF-8 CAN encode ALL characters though it can use up to 4 bytes for doing so (as you suggested it would use surrogate pairs if more than 2 bytes are needed).
I tried to do a conversion to UTF-32 using mbrtoc32 but cuchar is strangely missing on Mac.
BTW, if you don't know what a surrogate pair is (I didn't) there's a nice post about this on the forum.
For your purposes, finding and printing the value of each character, you probably want to use char32_t, because that has no multi-byte strings or surrogate pairs and can be converted to decimal values just by casting to unsigned long. I would link to an example I wrote, but it sounds as if you want to solve this problem yourself.
C++14 directly supports the types char8_t, char16_t and char32_t, in addition to the legacy wchar_t that sometimes means UCS-32, sometimes UTF-16LE, sometimes UTF-16BE, sometimes something different. It also lets you store strings at runtime, no matter what character set you saved your source file in, in any of these formats with the u8", u" and U" prefixes, and the \uXXXX unicode escape as a fallback. For backward compatibility, you can encode UTF-8 with hex escape codes in an array of unsigned char.
Therefore, you can store the data in any format you want. You could also use the facet codecvt<wchar_t,char,mbstate_t>, which all locales are required to support. There are also the multi-byte string functions in <wchar.h> and <uchar.h>.
I highly recommend you store all new external data in UTF-8. This includes your source files! (Annoyingly, some older software still doesn’t support it.) It may also be convenient to use the same character set internally as your libraries, which will be UTF-16 (wchar_t) on Windows. If you need fixed-length characters that can hold any codepoint with no special cases, char32_t will be handy.
Originally computers were designed for the American market and used Ascii - the American code for information interchange. This had 7 bit codes, and just the basic English letters and a few punctuation marks, plus codes at the lower end designed to drive paper and ink printer terminals.
This became inadequate as computers developed and started to be used for language processing as much as for numerical work. The first thing that happened was that various expansions to 8 bits were proposed. This could either cover most of the decorated European characters (accents, etc) or it could give a series of basic graphics good for creating menus and panels, but you couldn't achieve both. There was still no way of representing non-Latin character sets like Greek.
So a 16-bit code was proposed, and called Unicode. Microsoft adopted this very early and invented the wchar WCHAR (it has various identifiers) to hold international characters. However it emerged that 16 bits wasn't enough to hold all glyphs in common use, also the Unicode consortium intoducuced some minor incompatibilities with Microsoft's 16-bit code set.
So Unicode can be a series of 16-bit integers. That's wchar string. Ascii text now has zero characters between in the high bytes, so you can't pass a wide string to a function expectign Ascii. Since 16 bits was nearly but not quite enough, a 32 bit unicode set was also produced.
However when you saved unicode to a file, this created problems, was it 16 bit of 32 bit> And was it big-endian or little-endian. So a flag at the start of the data was proposed to remedy this. The problem was that the file contents, memorywise, no longer match the string contents.
C++ std:;string was templated so it could use basic chars or one of the wide types, almost always in practice Microsoft's 16 bit near-unicode encoding.
The UTF-8 was invented to come to the rescue. This a multi-byte variable length encoding, which uses the fact that ascii is only 7 bits. So if the high bit is set, it means that you have two, three, or four bytes in the character. Now a very large number of string are English language or mainly human-readable numbers, so essentially ascii. These strings are the same in Ascii as in UTF-8, which mkaes life a whole lot easier. You have no byte order convention problems. You do have the problem that you must decode the UTF-8 to code points with as not entirely trivial function, and remember to advance your read position by the correct number of bytes.
UTF-8 is really the answer, but the other encodings are still in use and you will come across them.
I have the following piece of code which the comment in code says it converts any character greater than 7F to UTF-8. I have the following questions on this code:
if((const unsigned char)c > 0x7F)
{
Buffer[0] = 0xC0 | ((unsigned char)c >> 6);
Buffer[1] = 0x80 | ((unsigned char)c & 0x3F);
return Buffer;
}
How does this code work?
Does the current windows code page I am using has any effect on the character placed in Buffer?
For starters, the code doesn't work, in general. By
coincidence, it works if the encoding in char (or unsigned
char) is ISO-8859-1, because ISO-8859-1 has the same code
points as the first 256 Unicode code points. But ISO-8859-1 has
largely been superceded by ISO-8859-15, so it probably won't
work. (Try it for 0xA4, for example. The Euro sign in
ISO-8859-15. It will give you a completely different
character.)
There are two correct ways to do this conversion, both of which
depend on knowing the encoding of the byte being entered (which
means that you may need several versions of the code, depending
on the encoding). The simplest is simply to have an array with
256 strings, one per character, and index into that. In which
case, you don't need the if. The other is to translate the
code into a Unicode code point (32 bit UTF-32), and translate
that into UTF-8 (which can require more than two bytes for some
characters: the Euro character is 0x20AC: 0xE2, 0x82, 0xAC).
EDIT:
For a good introduction to UTF-8:
http://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/~mgk25/unicode.html. The title says it
is for Unix/Linux, but there is very little, if any, system
specific information in it (and such information is clearly
marked).
I know the UTF-16 has two types of endiannesses: big endian and little endian.
Does the C++ standard define the endianness of std::wstring? or it is implementation-defined?
If it is standard-defined, which page of the C++ standard provide the rules on this issue?
If it is implementation-defined, how to determine it? e.g. under VC++. Does the compiler guarantee the endianness of std::wstring is strictly dependent on the processor?
I have to know this; because I want to send the UTF-16 string to others. I must add the correct BOM in the beginning of the UTF-16 string to indicate its endianness.
In short: Given a std::wstring, how should I reliably determine its endianness?
Endianess is MACHINE dependent, not language dependent. Endianess is defined by the processor and how it arranges data in and out of memory. When dealing with wchar_t (which is wider than a single byte), the processor itself upon a read or write aligns the multiple bytes as it needs to in order to read or write it back to RAM again. Code simply looks at it as the 16 bit (or larger) word as represented in a processor internal register.
For determining (if that is really what you want to do) endianess (on your own), you could try writing a KNOWN 32 bit (unsigned int) value out to ram, then read it back using a char pointer. Look for the ordering that is returned.
It would look something like this:
unsigned int aVal = 0x11223344;
char * myValReadBack = (char *)(&aVal);
if(*myValReadBack == 0x11) printf("Big endian\r\n");
else printf("Little endian\r\n");
Im sure there are other ways, but something like the above should work, check my little versus big though :-)
Further, until Windows RT, VC++ really only compiled to intel type processors. They really only have had 1 endianess type.
It is implementation-defined. wstring is just a string of wchar_t, and that can be any byte ordering, or for that matter, any old size.
wchar_t is not required to be UTF-16 internally and UTF-16 endianness does not affect how wchar's are stored, it's a matter of saving and reading it.
You have to use an explicit procedure of converting wstring to a UTF-16 bytestream before sending it anywhere. Internal endianness of wchar is architecture-dependent and it's better to use some opaque interfaces for converting than try to convert it manually.
For the purposes of sending the correct BOM, you don't need to know the endianness. Just use the code \uFEFF. That will be bigendian or little-endian depending on the endianness of your implementation. You don't even need to know whether your implementation is UTF-16 or UTF-32. As long as it is some unicode encoding, you'll end up with the appropriate BOM.
Unfortunately, neither wchars nor wide streams are guaranteed to be unicode.
Is there a macro that tells you what encoding C++ is using for its wchar_t type?
I am currently stuck to GNU and clang. I am guessing UTF32 because my wchar_t has a size of 4 bytes. Although it could be UTF-16, it also uses 4 bytes for some code-points.
But then there is still the problem of UCS-4 or UTF-32LE or UTF-32BE.
Any help/expertise on this topic?
wchar_t is implementation specific. It is not bound any specific encoding. If you are on a platform where wchar_t is 16 bits then it simply does not support UTF32 for example.
Encoding (UTF8, UTF32) and storage (wchar_t) are different things.
There is no such macro in C++. In C99, there is macro STDC_ISO_10646 to indicate that wchar_t is Unicode. In C++, encoding of characters stored in wchar_t depends on locale and it is implementation-defined feature. In other words, you need to consult documentation of the C++ implementation you use to see see what wchar_t is associated with each locale.