I am writing (hand written) recursive descent parser for SQL select statement in c++, i need to know whether the parse tree created by me is correct or not. I want to check but i didn't get a good sources for sql parse trees. My way of approach is - writing a function for each production and in that function the result is adding to the root tree. Can any one help me? Thanks in advance.
I don't know how you'll go about verifying your code is correct, but if you're concerned about your understanding of the SQL grammar, then here is a website that lists BNF grammars for various dialects of SQL. You ought to be able construct your parser in terms of these rules.
My company builds a lot of parsers, and have your same problem. We recently finished a SQL 2011 parser based on the draft standard.
Pretty much you decide if the parse tree is right by hand-inspecting it for many source code cases. This presumes that you can print the parse tree in a form that you can easily inspect; this is easily accomplished by a recursive tree walk of the parse tree. [You have to already believe that your abstract syntax tree nodes correctly model what you intend to capture!]. You choose the cases carefully to exercise different parts of the grammar (think "unit tests for grammars"). For a langauge as rich as SQL, this is a big job.
You also need to validate that the parser works in general, and you do that by feeding a lot of real code for the particular dialect of SQL you are handling. I typically try to find 100K-1M SLOC, and if the parser can't eat all of that, I have still have work left to do. Once you get to that level, you sort of consider that your parser is OK and treat further errors as "maintenance issues".
While the following may not help you directly, it might hint at a direction in which you could head. I use a somewhat different approach, based on having extremely strong parsing machinery available. Our tool, the DMS Software Reengineering Toolkit, given a grammar, will produce ASTs automatically, and has built-in facilities to print such parse trees (in one form as XML). The AST has sufficient information to regenerate ("prettyprint") the source text, and DMS has a built-in prettyprinter. So after hand inspecting a variety of cases, what I do is to take a large body of code, and for each file, parse it (getting no parse errors by virtue of the work done above), prettyprint the source, and reparse the source (expecting to get no errors). This is strong hint that we haven't lost anything in the round trip.
We have a new tool available, the Smart Differencer that compares the text of two programs to see if they are "the same" ignoring language layout rules. It works in essence by parsing two files and comparting their parse trees, ignoring the formatting (line/column/escapes/radix/comments/whitespace). What we are starting to do is to parse the source code, prettyprint it, and the smart-diffing the prettytprinted result against the original file. SmartDiff should say "no AST differences". This is a much stronger hint that we haven't lost anything. You can do pretty the much the same if you are willing to compare your before-and-after printed parse trees.
This parser, based on pyparsing, might be helpful as a second SELECT parsing resource (although it is in Python, not C++, sorry).
Related
I have this idea to be able to 'declare' a grammar and use the same declaration for generating the format function.
A parser generator (e.g. antlr) is able to generate the parser from a bnf grammar.
But is there a way to use the same grammar to generate the formatting code?
I just want to avoid manually having to sync the parsing code (generated) with a manually written formatting code, since the grammar is the same.
could I use the abstract syntax tree?
boost::spirit? metaprogramming?
anyone tried this?
thanks
It's not clear to me whether this question is looking for an existing product or library (in which case, the question would be out-of-scope for Stack Overflow), or in algorithms for automatically generating a pretty printer from (some formalism for) a grammar. Here, I've tried to provide some pointers for the second possibility.
There is a long history of research into syntax-directed pretty printing, and a Google or Citeseer search on that phrase will probably give you lots of reading material. I'd recommend trying to find a copy of Derek Oppen's 1979 paper, Prettyprinting, which describes a linear-time algorithm based on the insertion of a few pretty-printing operators into the tokenized source code.
Oppen's basic operators are fairly simple: they consist of indications about how code segments are to be (recursively) grouped, about where newlines must and might be inserted, and about where in a group to increase indentation depth. With the set of proposed operators, it is possible to create an on-line algorithm which prefers to break lines higher up in the parse tree, avoiding the tendency to over-indent deeply-nested code, which is a classic failing of naïve indentation algorithms.
In essence, the algorithm uses a two-finger solution, where the leading finger consumes new tokens and notices when the line must be wrapped, at which point it signals the trailing finger. The trailing finger then finds the earliest point at which a newline could be inserted and all the additional newlines and indents which must be inserted to conform with the operators, advancing until there is no newline between the fingers.
The on-line algorithm might not produced optimal indentation/reflowing (and it is not immediately obvious what the definition of "optimal" might be); for certain aspects of the pretty-printing, it might be useful to think about the ideas in Donald Knuth's optimal line-wrapping algorithm, as described in his 1999 text, Digital Typography. (More references in the Wikipedia article on line wrapping.)
Oppen's algorithm is not perfect (as indicated in the paper) but it may be "good enough" for many practical purposes. (I note some limitations below.) Tracing the citation history of this paper will give you a number of implementations, improvements, and alternate algorithms.
It's clear that a parser generator could easily be modified to simply insert pretty-printing annotations into a token stream, and I believe that there have been various attempts to create yacc-like pretty-printer generators. (And possibly ANTLR derivatives, too.) The basic idea is to embed the pretty printing annotations in the grammar description, which allows the automatic generation of a reduction action which outputs an annotated token stream.
Syntax-directed pretty printing was added to the ASF+SDF Meta-Environment using a similar annotation system; the basic algorithm and formalism is described by M.G.J. van der Brand in Pretty Printing in the ASF+SDF Meta-environment Past, Present and Future (1995), which also makes for interesting reading. (ASF+SDF has since been superseded by the Rascal Metaprogramming Language, which includes visualization tools.)
One important issue with syntax-directed pretty printing algorithms is that they are based on the parse of a tokenized stream, which means that comments have already been removed. Clearly it is desirable that comments be retained in a pretty-printed version of a program, but correctly attaching comments to the relevant code is not trivial, particularly when the comment is on the same line as some code. Consider, for example, the case of a commented-out operation embedded into code:
// This is the simplified form of actual code
int needed_ = (current_ /* + adjustment_ */ ) * 2;
Or the common case of trailing comments used to document variables:
/* Tracking the current allocation */
int needed_; // Bytes required.
int current_; // Bytes currently allocated.
// int adjustment_; // (TODO) Why is this needed?
/* Either points to the current allocation, or is 0 */
char* buffer_;
In the above example, note the importance of whitespace: the comments may apply to the previous declaration (even though they appear after the semicolon which terminates it) or to the following declaration(s), mostly depending on whether they are suffix comments or full-line comments, but the commented-out code is an exception. Also, the programmer has attempted to line up the names of the member variables.
Another problem with automated syntax-directed pretty-printing is handling incorrect (or incomplete) programs, as would need to be done if the pretty-printing is part of a Development Environment. Error-handling (and error recovery) is by far the most difficult part of automatically-generated parsers; maintaining useful pretty printing in this context is even more complicated. It's precisely for this reason that most IDEs use a form of peephole pretty-printing (another possible search phrase), or even adaptive pretty-printing where user indentation is used as a guide to the location of as-yet-unwritten code.
OP asks, Has anyone tried this?
Yes. Our DMS Software Reengineering Toolkit can do this: you give it just a grammar, you get a parser that builds ASTs and you get a prettyprinter. We've used this on
lots of parse/changeAST/unparse tasks for many language over the last 20 years, preserving the meaning of the source program exactly.
The process is to parse according to the grammar, build an AST, and then walk the AST to carry out prettyprinting operations.
However, you don't get a good prettyprinter. Nice layout of the reformatted source code requires that language cues for block nesting (e.g., matching '{' ... '}', 'BEGIN' ... 'END' pairs, special keywords 'if', 'for', etc.) be used to drive the formatting and indentation. While one can guess what these elements are (as I just did), that's just a guess and in practice a human being needs to inspect the grammar to determine which things are cues and how to format each construct. (The default prettyprinter derived from the grammar makes such guesses).
DMS provides support for that problem in the form of prettyprinter declarations woven into the grammar to provide the formatter engineer quite a lot of control over the layout. (See this SO answer for detailed discussion: https://stackoverflow.com/a/5834775/120163) This produces
(our opinion) pretty good prettyprinters. And DMS does have an explicit grammar/formatter for full C++14. [EDIT Aug 2018: full C++17 in MS and GCC dialects)]
EDIT: rici's answer suggests that comments are difficult to handle. He's right, in the sense that you must handle them, and yes, it is hard to handle them if they are removed as whitespace while parsing. The essense of the problem is "removed as whitespace"; and goes away if you don't do that. DMS provides means to capture the comments (rather than ignoring them as whitespace) and attach them (automatically) to AST nodes. The decision as to which AST node captures the comments is handled in the lexer by declaring comments as "pre" (happening before a token) or "post"; this decision is heuristic on the part of the grammer/lexer engineer, but works actually pretty well. The token with comments is passed to the parser, which builds an AST node from it. With comments attached to AST nodes, the prettyprinter can re-generate them, too.
As a developer, and I'm certain I'm far from alone here, I'm always curious to understand what's "under the hood". DOM parsers are one of the list-toppers of this curiosity for me. We all know the famous post. I have even hacked together a bit of an "O RLY?", out of both temporary necessity and curiosity.
However my need to meet the man-behind-the-curtain remains unmet. How do DOM parsers, or any structured document parsers for that matter, parse documents? As far as my intermediate web application developer understanding can muster, it's a combination of recursive string parsing and state-keeping logic, not unlike my own hackish attempt.
Magicians should never reveal their secrets, but seriously, where is he hiding the rabbit?
There's a well-developed theory of parsing, and untold numbers of tools to support it. In general, you look at each character, one at a time, and decide when the characters you've made so far constitute a token. Then you look at the series of tokens, and decide when the sequence of tokens constitute a higher-level grammatical construct -- in this case, an HTML element. As you recognize constructs, you build a tree of nodes to represent them -- in this case, the DOM tree.
So are you familiar with context-free grammars, and compiler-compilers like yacc, bison, and their more modern counterparts? If you understand those, a DOM parser shouldn't be a mystery.
Is it possible to create an AST for any arbitrary programming language or IR using C or C++ alone (without the help of tools like YACC and LEX )?
If so, how to implement the lexical and syntactic analysis ?
If not, what are the tools that have to augmented to C or C++ to successfully create an AST ?
Hope I made my doubt clear. If My question looks vague or out of context, please indicate the required.
P.S : I Am actually trying to create the AST for the LLVM's .ll format of IR representation. I do know that .ll is derived from AST. But I am trying out static analysis practices. So I am looking at creating the AST.
The most straight-forward methodology for creating the parser without a parser-generator is recursive descent. It is very well documented - the standard book in the field is The Dragon Book.
A scanner, that takes text as input and produces a string of tokens as output, can be written using standard string manipulation techniques.
I doubt there's a one-to-one mapping between your arbitrary langauge and LLVM's ASTs.
That means it is likely that you really want to do this in two stages:
Parse your 'arbitrary language' using the best parsing tools you can get to simplify the problem of parsing your language. Use that to build an AST for your language, following standard methods for parser generators producing ASTs. LEX/YACC are OK but there are plenty of good alternatives out there. Its pretty likely you'll need to build a symbol table.
Walk the AST of the your parsed langauge to build your LLVM AST. This won't be one-to-one, but the ability to look around the tree near a tree node in your AST to collect information need to generate the LLVM code will likely be extremely helpful.
This is a classic style for a simple compiler.
I suggest you read the Aho/Ullman Dragon book on syntax directed translation. A day's worth of education will save you months of wasted engineering time.
I am trying to build a simple LR parser for a type of template (configuration) file that will be used to generate some other files. I've read and read about LR parsers, but I just can't seem to understand it! I understand that there is a parse stack, a state stack and a parsing table. Tokens are read onto the parse stack, and when a rule is matched then the tokens are shifted or reduced, depending on the parsing table. This continues recursively until all of the tokens are reduced and the parsing is then complete.
The problem is I don't really know how to generate the parsing table. I've read quite a few descriptions, but the language is technical and I just don't understand it. Can anyone tell me how I would go about this?
Also, how would I store things like the rules of my grammar?
http://codepad.org/oRjnKacH is a sample of the file I'm trying to parse with my attempt at a grammar for its language.
I've never done this before, so I'm just looking for some advice, thanks.
In your study of parser theory, you seem to have missed a much more practical fact: virtually nobody ever even considers hand writing a table-driven, bottom-up parser like you're discussing. For most practical purposes, hand-written parsers use a top-down (usually recursive descent) structure.
The primary reason for using a table-driven parser is that it lets you write a (fairly) small amount of code that manipulates the table and such, that's almost completely generic (i.e. it works for any parser). Then you encode everything about a specific grammar into a form that's easy for a computer to manipulate (i.e. some tables).
Obviously, it would be entirely possible to do that by hand if you really wanted to, but there's almost never a real point. Generating the tables entirely by hand would be pretty excruciating all by itself.
For example, you normally start by constructing an NFA, which is a large table -- normally, one row for each parser state, and one column for each possible input. At each cell, you encode the next state to enter when you start in that state, and then receive that input. Most of these transitions are basically empty (i.e. they just say that input isn't allowed when you're in that state). Note: since the valid transitions are so sparse, most parser generators support some way of compressing these tables, but that doesn't change the basic idea).
You then step through all of those and follow some fairly simple rules to collect sets of NFA states together to become a state in the DFA. The rules are simple enough that it's pretty easy to program them into a computer, but you have to repeat them for every cell in the NFA table, and do essentially perfect book-keeping to produce a DFA that works correctly.
A computer can and will do that quite nicely -- for it, applying a couple of simple rules to every one of twenty thousand cells in the NFA state table is a piece of cake. It's hard to imagine subjecting a person to doing the same though -- I'm pretty sure under UN guidelines, that would be illegal torture.
The classic solution is the lex/yacc combo:
http://dinosaur.compilertools.net/yacc/index.html
Or, as gnu calls them - flex/bison.
edit:
Perl has Parse::RecDescent, which is a recursive descent parser, but it may work better for simple work.
you need to read about ANTLR
I looked at the definition of your fileformat, while I am missing some of the context why you would want specifically a LR parser, my first thought was why not use existing formats like xml, or json. Going down the parsergenerator route usually has a high startup cost that will not pay off for the simple data that you are looking to parse.
As paul said lex/yacc are an option, you might also want to have a look at Boost::Spirit.
I have worked with neither, a year ago wrote a much larger parser using QLALR by the Qt/Nokia people. When I researched parsers this one even though very underdocumented had the smallest footprint to get started (only 1 tool) but it does not support lexical analysis. IIRC I could not figure out C++ support in ANTLR at that time.
10,000 mile view: In general you are looking at two components a lexer that takes the input symbols and turns them into higher order tokens. To work of the tokens your grammar description will state rules, usually you will include some code with the rules, this code will be executed when the rule is matched. The compiler generator (e.g. yacc) will take your description of the rules and the code and turn it into compilable code. Unless you are doing this by hand you would not be manipulating the tables yourself.
Well you can't understand it like
"Function A1 does f to object B, then function A2 does g to D etc"
its more like
"Function A does action {a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h,i,j,k,l,m,n,o or p, or no-op} and shifts/reduces a certain count to objects {1-1567} at stack head of type {B,C,D,E,F,or G} and its containing objects up N levels which may have types {H,I,J,K or L etc} in certain combinations according to a rule list"
It really does need a data table (or code generated from a data table like thing, like a set of BNF grammar data) telling the function what to do.
You CAN write it from scratch. You can also paint walls with eyelash brushes. You can interpret the data table at run-time. You can also put Sleep(1000); statements in your code every other line. Not that I've tried either.
Compilers is complex. Hence compiler generators.
EDIT
You are attempting to define the tokens in terms of content in the file itself.
I assume the reason you "don't want to use regexes" is that you want to be able to access line number information for different tokens within a block of text and not just for the block of text as a whole. If line numbers for each word are unnecessary, and entire blocks are going to fit into memory, I'd be inclined to model the entire bracketed block as a token, as this may increase processing speed. Either way you'll need a custom yylex function. Start by generating one with lex with fixed markers "[" and "]" for content start and end, then freeze it and modify it to take updated data about what markers to look for from the yacc code.
I am interested in writing a very minimalistic compiler.
I want to write a small piece of software (in C/C++) that fulfills the following criteria:
output in ELF format (*nix)
input is a single textfile
C-like grammar and syntax
no linker
no preprocessor
very small (max. 1-2 KLOC)
Language features:
native data types: char, int and floats
arrays (for all native data types)
variables
control structures (if-else)
functions
loops (would be nice)
simple algebra (div, add, sub, mul, boolean expressions, bit-shift, etc.)
inline asm (for system calls)
Can anybody tell me how to start? I don't know what parts a compiler consists of (at least not in the sense that I just could start right off the shelf) and how to program them. Thank you for your ideas.
With all that you hope to accomplish, the most challenging requirement might be "very small (max. 1-2 KLOC)". I think your first requirement alone (generating ELF output) might take well over a thousand lines of code by itself.
One way to simplify the problem, at least to start with, is to generate code in assembly language text that you then feed into an existing assembler (nasm would be a good choice). The assembler would take care of generating the actual machine code, as well as all the ELF specific code required to build an actual runnable executable. Then your job is reduced to language parsing and assembly code generation. When your project matures to the point where you want to remove the dependency on an assembler, you can rewrite this part yourself and plug it in at any time.
If I were you, I might start with an assembler and build pieces on top of it. The simplest "compiler" might take a language with just a few very simple possible statements:
print "hello"
a = 5
print a
and translate that to assembly language. Once you get that working, then you can build a lexer and parser and abstract syntax tree and code generator, which are most of the parts you'll need for a modern block structured language.
Good luck!
Firstly, you need to decide whether you are going to make a compiler or an interpreter. A compiler translates your code into something that can be run either directly on hardware, in an interpreter, or get compiled into another language which then is interpreted in some way. Both types of languages are turing complete so they have the same expressive capabilities. I would suggest that you create a compiler which compiles your code into either .net or Java bytecode, as it gives you a very optimized interpreter to run on as well as a lot of standard libraries.
Once you made your decision there are some common steps to follow
Language definition Firstly, you have to define how your language should look syntactically.
Lexer The second step is to create the keywords of your code, known as tokens. Here, we are talking about very basic elements such as numbers, addition sign, and strings.
Parsing The next step is to create a grammar that matches your list of tokens. You can define your grammar using e.g. a context-free grammar. A number of tools can be fed with one of these grammars and create the parser for you. Usually, the parsed tokens are organized into a parse tree. A parse tree is the representation of your grammar as a data structure which you can move around in.
Compiling or Interpreting The last step is to run some logic on your parse tree. A simple way to make your own interpreter is to create some logic associated to each node type in your tree and walk through the tree either bottom-up or top-down. If you want to compile to another language you can insert the logic of how to translate the code in the nodes instead.
Wikipedia is great for learning more, you might want to start here.
Concerning real-world reading material I would suggest "Programming language processors in JAVA" by David A Watt & Deryck F Brown. I used that book in my compilers course and learning by example is great in this field.
These are the absolutely essential parts:
Scanner: This breaks the input file into tokens
Parser: This constructs an abstract syntax tree (AST) from the tokens identified by the scanner.
Code generation: This produces the output from the AST.
You'll also probably want:
Error handling: This tells the parser what to do if it encounters an unexpected token
Optimization: This will enable the compiler to produce more efficient machine code
Edit: Have you already designed the language? If not, you'll want to look into language design, too.
I don't know what you hope to get out of this, but if it is learning, and looking at existing code works for you, there is always tcc.
The number one essential is a book on compiler writing. A lot of people will tell you to read the "Dragon Book" by Aho et al, but the best book I've read on compilers is "Brinch Hansen on Pascal Compilers". I suspect it's out of print (Amazon is your friend), but it takes you through all the steps of designing and writing a compiler using recursive descent, which is the easiest method for compiler newbies to understand.
Although the book uses Pascal as the implementation and target languages, the lessons and techniques presented apply equally to all other languages.
The examples are all in Perl, but Exploring Programming Language Architecture in Perl is a good book (and free).
A really good set of free references, IMHO, are:
Overall compiler tutorial: Let's Build a Compiler by Jack Crenshaw (http://compilers.iecc.com/crenshaw/) It's wordy, but I like it.
Assembler: NASM (nasm.us) good for Linux and Windows/DOS, and most importantly lots of doco and examples/tutorials. (FASM is also good but less documentation/tutorials out there)
Other sources
The PC Assembly book (http://www.drpaulcarter.com/pcasm/index.php)
I'm trying to write a LISP, so I'm using the Lisp 1.5 Manual. You may want to get the language spec for whatever language you're writing.
As far as 1-2KLOC, assuming you use a high level language (like Py or Rb) you should be close if you're not too ambitious.
I always recommend flex and bison for this kind of work as a beginner. You can always learn the ins and outs of writing your own scanner and parser later, although they may increase the code size at least they will be generated for you by tools. :)